Important Questions of Mobile Computing

Q1. What is Mobile Communications and list some features of it?

Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with others in different
locations without the use of any physical connection (wires or cables). Mobile communication makes our life
easier, and it saves time and effort.

A mobile phone (also called mobile cellular network, cell phone or hand phone) is an example of mobile
communication (wireless communication). It is an electric device used for full duplex two way radio
telecommunication over a cellular network of base stations known as cell site.

Features of Mobile Communication

The following are the features of mobile communication:

o High capacity load balancing: Each wired or wireless infrastructure must incorporate high capacity
load balancing.
High capacity load balancing means, when one access point is overloaded, the system will actively
shift users from one access point to another depending on the available capacity.

o Scalability: The growth in popularity of new wireless devices continuously increasing day by day. The
wireless networks have the ability to start small if necessary, but expand in terms of coverage and
capacity as needed - without having to overhaul or build an entirely new network.

o Network management system: Now a day, wireless networks are much more complex and may
consist of hundreds or even thousands of access points, firewalls, switches, managed power and various
other components.
The wireless networks have a smarter way of managing the entire network from a centralized point.

o Indoor as well as outdoor coverage options: It is important that your wireless system has the
capability of adding indoor coverage as well as outdoor coverage.
 o Network access control: Network access control can also be called as mobile device registration. It is
essential to have a secure registration.
Network access control (NAC) controls the role of the user and enforces policies. NAC can allow your
users to register themselves to the network. It is a helpful feature that enhances the user experience.

o Mobile device management: Suppose, many mobile devices are accessing your wireless network;
now think about the thousands of applications are running on those mobile devices.
How do you plan on managing all of these devices and their applications, especially as devices come
and go from your business?
Mobile device management can provide control of how you will manage access to programs and
applications. Even you can remotely wipe the device if it is lost or stolen.

o Roaming: You don't need to worry about dropped connections, slower speeds or any disruption in
service as you move throughout your office or even from building to building wireless needs to be
mobile first.
Roaming allows your end-users to successfully move from one access point to another without ever
noticing a dip in a performance.
For example, allowing a student to check their mail as they walk from one class to the next.

o For example: A hospital environment will need a higher level of redundancy than a coffee shop.
However, at the end of the day, they both need to have a backup plan in place.

o Switching: Basically, a network switch is the traffic cop of your wireless network which making sure
that everyone and every device gets to where they need to go.
Switching is an essential part of every fast, secure wireless network for several reasons:

o It helps the traffic on your network flow more efficiently.

o It minimizes unnecessary traffic.

o It creates a better user experience by ensuring your traffic is going to the right places.

Q2. Describe Mobile and Handheld Devices?

Mobile and handheld devices are portable computing devices that are essential in the field of mobile computing.
They allow users to access information, run applications, and communicate wirelessly while on the go. Here's a
detailed description:

1. Mobile Devices:

Mobile devices are a broad category of portable electronics that enable communication, internet access, and
various computing tasks. These devices typically feature wireless communication capabilities such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular connectivity (3G, 4G, 5G). Examples include:

- Smartphones: Phones with advanced operating systems (iOS, Android) that allow users to install and run a
wide variety of apps.
 - Tablets: Larger touch-screen devices that often run the same operating systems as smartphones but with
larger displays for better media consumption and productivity tasks.

- Wearables (Smartwatches, Fitness Trackers): Devices worn on the body that offer specialized functionalities
like health tracking, messaging, and notifications.

- Laptops: Portable personal computers with larger screens and more powerful hardware compared to
smartphones and tablets, typically used for more complex computing tasks.

2. Handheld Devices:

Handheld devices are smaller, more compact, and designed for convenience, often fitting in one hand. Many
of these overlap with mobile devices. Key characteristics include portability, lightweight design, and touch-
based or physical input systems. Some examples are:

- Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): Once popular for managing contacts, calendars, and tasks, PDAs are
now largely replaced by smartphones.

-Handheld Gaming Consoles: Devices like the Nintendo Switch Lite, specifically designed for gaming on the
go.

- E-readers: Devices like Amazon Kindle, designed for reading digital books with specialized screens for
better visibility in various lighting conditions.

Key Features of Mobile and Handheld Devices:

- Portability: Lightweight and easy to carry, making them suitable for on-the-go tasks.

- Battery Operated: Equipped with rechargeable batteries for extended use without being tethered to a power
source.

- Touch Interfaces: Most devices feature touchscreens, although some handheld devices may include physical
buttons or styluses.

- Wireless Communication: They support various wireless communication protocols, allowing access to the
internet, cloud services, and communication networks.

- Operating Systems: Mobile devices typically run operating systems like Android, iOS, or Windows, while
handheld gaming consoles may have proprietary OSs.

Q3.What is Mobile Security? Give some benefits of mobile security?

Mobile security refers to the protection of mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearables, from
threats, vulnerabilities, and malicious attacks. With the increasing usage of mobile devices for various tasks,
including personal communication, business activities, online transactions, and cloud access, ensuring the
security of these devices has become critical. Mobile security encompasses a range of measures designed to
safeguard mobile hardware, software, and network data from unauthorized access, theft, or damage.

Mobile security typically involves securing:

1. Device security: Preventing unauthorized physical or remote access to the device.

2. App security: Ensuring that the apps installed on mobile devices do not contain malware or exploit
vulnerabilities.

3. Data security: Protecting personal and sensitive information stored on the device, including encryption and
secure storage.

4. Network security: Protecting mobile devices from threats when connected to public or unsecured networks.

Benefits of Mobile Security:

1. Protection Against Data Theft:

Mobile security safeguards sensitive personal and business data stored on devices. Encryption and strong
authentication methods ensure that even if a device is lost or stolen, unauthorized users cannot access the
information.

2. Prevention of Malware and Viruses:

Mobile security helps prevent malware, viruses, and other malicious software from infecting mobile devices.
Security apps and systems scan for vulnerabilities and block suspicious activity, protecting users from malware
that could steal information or damage the device.

3. Safe Browsing and Secure Communication:

Mobile security features, such as secure browsers and VPNs (Virtual Private Networks), enable safe browsing
and protect user privacy. Secure communication protocols ensure that messages, emails, and transactions are
encrypted and cannot be intercepted by attackers.

4. Application Security:

Mobile security solutions ensure that downloaded apps are scanned for vulnerabilities or malicious code
before installation. This helps prevent the installation of harmful apps that could compromise the device’s
security or data.

5. Remote Wiping and Locking:

In case of a lost or stolen mobile device, mobile security provides remote wiping and locking capabilities.
Users can erase all data remotely and lock the device, preventing unauthorized access to personal information.

6. Prevention of Unauthorized Access:

Security features such as biometric authentication (fingerprint, facial recognition) and two-factor
authentication (2FA) ensure that only authorized users can access the mobile device and its contents.

7. improved Device Performance:

Security apps help in monitoring and managing apps, storage, and system resources, ensuring that the device
functions optimally by removing or blocking malicious software that may slow down performance.

8. Protection Against Phishing Attacks:

Mobile security systems can detect and block phishing websites, emails, and text messages that try to trick
users into disclosing sensitive information like login credentials, credit card numbers, or personal data.

9. Compliance with Data Protection Regulations:

For businesses, mobile security helps ensure compliance with data protection regulations like GDPR (General
Data Protection Regulation) and HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act). Securing mobile
devices used for business purposes protects customer data and sensitive business information.

Q4. What is GSM? Draw the Architecture of GSM?

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital cellular technology
used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900
MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells

 Macro: In this size of the cell, a Base Station antenna is installed.

 Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.

 Pico: Small cells’ diameter of a few meters.

 Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fills the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM

 Supports international roaming

 Clear voice clarity

 Ability to support multiple handheld devices.

 Spectral / frequency efficiency

 Low powered handheld devices.

 Ease of accessing network

 International ISDN compatibility.

 Low service cost.

 New features and services.

The Architecture of GSM

 BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a mobile
phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two components BTS and BSC.

 NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of GSM. That
carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in network. NSS have
different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.

 OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network operator
monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is connected to BTS
through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand the functionality of different
components.

 MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for
communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that tower connected
with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver
has two performance of sending and receiving.

 BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication between user
equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.

 BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the BSC as a
local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.

 MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication switching
functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all functions are
performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and
PSTN.

o VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the exact
location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If you are
going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database of VLR.

o HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent data
regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network. If you purchase SIM card from in the
HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which plan you are
taking, which caller tune you are using etc.

o AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber that
wants to connect in the network.

o EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record of
all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then you can’t enter the
network, and you can’t make the calls.

o PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC.
PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost entirely digital
in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed telephones. The
earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.
  OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the performance
of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total three interfaces
are there:

 Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and BTS is called
as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.

 Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.

 A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

Q5. What is GPRS (General Packet Radio service)?

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a best-effort packet-switching protocol and standard for wireless and
cellular network communication services. GPRS is used to transport data over 2G, 3G and Wideband Code
Division Multiple Access mobile networks at moderate speeds.

The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standardized GPRS in early 1998, but commercial cellular
networks did not widely adopt the technology until 2000. It was the first technology successfully deployed in
2G mobile phone systems.

GPRS is considered best effort because all packets are given the same priority and the delivery of packets isn't
guaranteed.

GPRS uses an always-online function, which enables users to connect to different internet- and data-based
services. With GPRS, mobile users can access mobile internet browsing, email, broadcasting, Short Message
Service (SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). GPRS was one of the first widely accessible data
transfer protocols used on cellular networks.

Even though it is not used as often, GPRS is still relevant today, as it is widely compatible with networks and
mobile devices. Countries like Canada, China and Switzerland still use 2G and 3G networks -- all with plans to
sunset the technology within the next few years. All major carriers in the United States no longer offer 2G or 3G
services, and other countries like Japan have also retired the technologies.

The deployment date, speeds and latencies of 1G to 5G mobile networks

How GPRS works

What made GPRS technology different from other cellular wireless technologies at the time, like Global System
for Mobile Communications (GSM), was the use of packet-switched data instead of the traditional circuit-
switched data. When a cellphone was on circuit-switched mode, the circuit was permanently switched on to a
specific user. By contrast, packet-switched data transfers occurred in bursts during short peaks, followed by
breaks.

This approach was a more efficient use of available capacity because, by splitting data into packets and tags,
GPRS shared overall capacity among multiple users. This was possible because everyone wasn't often online at
the same time. The destination address became available when inserted into the packet, which enabled packets
from multiple sources to transmit through a single link.

The speeds of GPRS range from around 40 to 115 kilobits per second (Kbps). By comparison, 4G Long-Term
Evolution speeds reach around 100 megabits per second, 4G reaches 1,000 Mbps and 5G speeds can reach to
around 10 gigabits per second.

Typical and theoretical maximum download speeds for cellular data transfer technologies from 2G GPRS to 5G

Difference between GSM and GPRS

GSM and GPRS are both protocols and standards designed for use on mobile networks. GPRS, however, is an
improved version of GSM.

The primary difference between GSM and GPRS is that GSM is a circuit-switching system, while GPRS is a
packet-switching system. GPRS offers more data transmission options for GSM-based devices, as GSM
networks at the time could only use SMS, for example, to transmit a small amount of data.

With GPRS technology, mobile devices could support data functions across cellular internet connections. GPRS
revolutionized GSM by providing real data capability and enabling emails and simple web browsing -- albeit at
speeds much slower than the current standard.

Sometimes called a 2.5G network, GPRS provided data rates from about 56 to 115 Kbps and uninterrupted
connectivity to the internet for mobile phones and computers. By comparison, GSM provided data rates of
around 9.6 Kbps. However, GPRS by itself did not offer the mechanisms required to browse the internet. To
enable seamless internet access, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was needed. It emerged in 1999.
The key characteristics of GPRS are quick, for the time, data connections -- depending on the signal strength
and coverage -- and the facilitation of mobile application development. So, GPRS enabled capabilities such as
file transfer; online chat; and mobile, web and multimedia applications, as well as video conferencing platforms,
on mobile devices and laptop computers.

How a WAP gateway provides web content for mobile devices

GPRS performance classes

The industry classifies GPRS mobile networks by the number of slots they can accommodate. Multislot classes
-- from 1 to 45 -- determine the speed of uplink and downlink voice and data transfer. As levels of operation and
capability vary, a good indicator of a device's service ability is its GPRS performance class. GPRS has three
classes based on the ability to connect GSM and GPRS services.

The three classifications are as follows:

1. Class A. Can connect to both GSM and GPRS services concurrently.

2. Class B. Can connect to both GSM and GPRS services but not simultaneously.

3. Class C. Can use either GPRS or GSM services, but the user must switch between the two manually.

GPRS data speeds depend on the number of time slots available for use in either direction. These slots send and
receive data, uplink or downlink. GPRS also uses channel encoding processes called cyclic
code and convolutional code, the latter of which is a type of error-correcting code.

Q6. Write a short note on

a) FDMA
b) TDMA
Soln: a) FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):

FDMA is one of the oldest multiple-access techniques used in telecommunications and is primarily based on
dividing the available frequency spectrum into separate channels, with each channel allocated to a different user
or communication stream. This method ensures that multiple users can communicate simultaneously without
interference by assigning distinct frequency bands to each.

How FDMA Works:

 The available bandwidth is divided into several smaller, fixed frequency channels.

 Each user is assigned a unique frequency band within the spectrum for the duration of their call or
data transmission.

 FDMA works well with analog systems but can also be applied in digital communication.

 The user’s signal is modulated onto their dedicated frequency, and as long as the user remains active,
the frequency channel remains exclusively occupied.

Advantages of FDMA:

 Simple to implement: FDMA is easier to manage since it allocates fixed frequencies to each user.

 Low latency: Since users get a continuous connection (dedicated frequency), there's no need to wait
for time slots, making it suitable for real-time voice calls.

 Less complex hardware: FDMA systems require less sophisticated hardware compared to TDMA
systems.

Disadvantages of FDMA:

 Inefficient spectrum usage: Even when a user is not actively transmitting data, their frequency
channel remains occupied and unavailable to others.

 Interference and Guard Bands: To avoid interference between adjacent frequency channels, guard
bands (small frequency gaps) are required, which further reduces spectral efficiency.

 Fixed Capacity: The number of users is limited by the number of available frequency channels.

Application:

FDMA is commonly used in analog communication systems like the first-generation (1G) mobile systems,
satellite communications, and radio broadcasting.

b) TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

TDMA is a more advanced multiple-access technique commonly used in digital systems. Unlike FDMA, where
users are separated by frequency, TDMA separates users in time. Multiple users share the same frequency
channel, but they take turns transmitting in short, allocated time slots. This method improves efficiency by
allowing several users to share the same frequency without interference, provided they transmit data at different
times.

How TDMA Works:

 The available frequency is divided into time slots. Each user is allocated a specific time slot in which
they can transmit data.

 The users share the same frequency channel but are allowed to transmit only during their assigned time
slot.

 Time slots are very short, so users experience the communication as being continuous, even though the
transmission is intermittent (e.g., voice call or data packets).

 Synchronization is essential because each user must transmit only in their specific time slot, ensuring
no overlap or interference with other users.

Advantages of TDMA:

 Efficient use of bandwidth: Multiple users can share the same frequency by utilizing different time
slots, maximizing the efficiency of the spectrum.

 Increased capacity: More users can be accommodated compared to FDMA because the same
frequency can be reused by several users.

 Dynamic channel allocation: Time slots can be dynamically allocated based on user demand, making
TDMA suitable for bursty data traffic.

Disadvantages of TDMA:

 Synchronization required: All users must be perfectly synchronized to avoid time slot overlap, which
adds complexity to the system.

 Latency: While TDMA can efficiently handle bursty data, there may be delays when users have to wait
for their allocated time slot to transmit.

 Shared channel: Unlike FDMA, where users have a dedicated frequency, TDMA users share the same
channel and must wait their turn to transmit data, which can affect real-time services if not managed
well.

Application:

TDMA is widely used in digital cellular systems such as:

 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): The most well-known application of TDMA,
used in 2G networks.

 DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications): A standard for cordless phones.

 Satellite communications: TDMA is often used for satellite communications where efficient sharing
of the limited frequency spectrum is necessary.
Q7. Explain IEEE 802.11 and its two operating modes.

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for
wireless local area networks (WLANs). These standards define the technical specifications for wireless
communication, including the frequency bands, transmission methods, and security protocols used to enable
devices to communicate over a wireless network.

The most commonly known IEEE 802.11 standards are Wi-Fi, which provides wireless internet connectivity for
devices like laptops, smartphones, tablets, and more. The 802.11 standards have evolved over time to include
various amendments (such as 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax), each offering
improvements in terms of speed, coverage, and reliability.

Key Features of IEEE 802.11:

 Operates mainly in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands (newer standards like 802.11ax can also
operate in the 6 GHz band).

 Supports data rates ranging from 1 Mbps to several Gbps, depending on the version of the standard.

 Provides mechanisms for authentication, encryption, and data integrity, ensuring secure wireless
communication.

Two Operating Modes of IEEE 802.11:

1. Infrastructure Mode:

o In this mode, devices communicate with each other through a central device known as an
Access Point (AP).

o The access point acts as a hub that connects all devices in the wireless network and often
provides a bridge between the wireless network and a wired LAN or the internet.

o All communication in the infrastructure mode goes through the access point, even if two
devices are located close to each other. For example, when a laptop sends a message to a
smartphone, the data first goes to the access point, which then forwards it to the intended
recipient.

o Infrastructure mode is widely used in homes, offices, and public Wi-Fi networks.

Advantages:

o Provides centralized control, making it easier to manage large networks.

o The access point can also extend the range of the network and provide internet connectivity.

o Supports more secure authentication and encryption mechanisms, like WPA3.

Disadvantages:

o Requires a dedicated access point, which adds to the network's cost and complexity.

o If the access point fails, the entire network can become inoperable.

2. Ad-Hoc Mode:

o In ad-hoc mode (also called peer-to-peer mode), devices communicate directly with each
other without the need for an access point.

o Each device on the network functions as both a client and a server, forming a decentralized
network. Any device within range can connect to any other device, and data can be exchanged
directly.

o Ad-hoc networks are typically used in small, temporary networks, such as file sharing
between two laptops or creating a quick network in locations where no access point is
available.

Advantages:

o No need for an access point, making it simple and inexpensive to set up.

o Suitable for small and temporary networks.

o Can be used in situations where traditional infrastructure is unavailable (e.g., disaster recovery
scenarios).

Disadvantages:

o Limited range and scalability, as all devices must be within close proximity to each other.

o Lack of centralized management can make it difficult to secure and control large networks.

o Weaker security options compared to infrastructure mode.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 MAC layer data frame consists of 9 fields:

Frame Control

It is 2 bytes long and defines type of frame and control information. The types of fields present in FC are:

 Version: Indicates the current protocol version.

 Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01) or data(10).

 Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 0000 for association request, 1000 for beacon.

 To DS: When set indicates that the destination frame is for DS(distribution system).

 From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.

 More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed by other fragments.

 Retry: If the current frame is a re-transmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set to 1.

 Power Mgmt (Power Management): It indicates the mode of a station after successful transmission of
a frame. Set to ‘1’ field indicates that the station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the
station stays active.

 More data: It is used to indicate to the receiver that a sender has more data to send than the current
frame.

 WEP: It indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is applied.

 Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in strict order.

Duration / ID

It contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is occupied (in µs).
Address 1 to 4

These fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The meaning of each address is defined
by DS bits in the frame control field.

SC (Sequence Control)

It consists of 2 sub-fields i.e. sequence number (12 bits) and fragment number (4 bits). Sequence number is used
to filter duplicate frames.

Data

It is a variable length field which contains information specific to individual frames which is transferred
transparently from a sender to the receiver.

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

It contains 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.

Note: To know more about the features of IEEE 802.11 MAC frame visit this article.

Wi-Fi Alliance

Wi-Fi Alliance is a global non-profit organization that performs the task of monitoring products from different
manufacturers which are certified on the basis of IEEE 802.11 standard. There is always a concern whether
products from different vendors will successfully interoperate. Early 802.11 products suffered from
interoperability problems because the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) had no provision
for testing equipment for compliance with its standards. Hence, Wi-Fi Alliance’s main objective is to establish a
single global standard for high-speed wireless LANs and ensure interoperability among 802.11 devices.

Before 1999, Wi-Fi Alliance was known as Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA). It created a test-
suite to certify interoperability for 802.11 products and launched the Wi-Fi CERTIFIED program in March of
2020. This program offers a renowned designation of quality and interoperability, ensuring that certified
products provide the best quality and user experience.

Q8. What is MAC protocol and why it is used in wireless sensor networks?

MAC (Medium Access Control) protocol is a set of rules or procedures that govern how devices in a network
access and share the communication medium (channel). It is part of the data link layer in the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model, which ensures that multiple devices can communicate over a shared network
medium without collisions or interference.

The primary purpose of the MAC protocol is to control how devices (also called nodes) in a network access the
communication channel to avoid data collisions and ensure efficient use of the available bandwidth.

In wireless communication, including Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the MAC protocol is particularly
important because:

 The medium (radio frequency) is shared among multiple devices, meaning that if two or more
devices try to transmit data at the same time, there could be a collision, leading to data loss.

 Wireless communication is prone to interference, limited bandwidth, and energy constraints due to
the nature of wireless devices.

Why MAC Protocol is Used in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)?

In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), a large number of sensor nodes are deployed in an area to collect and
transmit data, such as temperature, humidity, or environmental information. These nodes communicate
wirelessly and typically have limited resources like battery power, bandwidth, and processing capabilities. The
MAC protocol is used in WSNs to effectively manage communication between nodes while conserving energy
and avoiding collisions.
Here are the reasons why the MAC protocol is crucial in WSNs:

1. Energy Efficiency:

 Energy conservation is one of the most critical concerns in WSNs, as sensor nodes often rely on
batteries that are difficult or impossible to replace, especially in remote or inaccessible areas.

 The MAC protocol helps reduce energy consumption by minimizing unnecessary transmissions and
idle listening (when nodes are waiting to receive data). It often uses techniques like duty cycling
(where nodes alternate between active and sleep states) to save power.

2. Collision Avoidance:

 In WSNs, multiple sensor nodes often share the same communication medium (wireless spectrum). If
two or more nodes attempt to send data simultaneously, the signals can collide, causing data loss and
requiring retransmissions.

 MAC protocols help manage access to the medium, ensuring that only one node transmits at a time.
This reduces the likelihood of collisions, saving energy and bandwidth.

3. Bandwidth Utilization:

 WSNs have limited bandwidth due to the constraints of wireless communication. The MAC protocol
ensures that the available bandwidth is used efficiently by coordinating when and how often nodes can
access the channel.

 This prevents nodes from overwhelming the network with data transmissions and ensures that the
network can accommodate multiple sensor nodes communicating simultaneously.

4. Scalability:

 In large-scale WSNs, hundreds or even thousands of sensor nodes may need to communicate with each
other or a central base station.

 The MAC protocol ensures that the network can scale and handle a large number of devices without
congestion or excessive data collisions. It coordinates the communication between many nodes in a
scalable manner.

5. Latency Control:

 In some WSN applications (e.g., environmental monitoring), the timing of data transmission is critical.
The MAC protocol helps reduce delays and controls the latency by ensuring nodes can send data
without waiting too long for access to the medium.

6. Fairness:

 The MAC protocol ensures fair access to the communication medium, so all sensor nodes get equal
opportunities to transmit their data without being monopolized by any one node.

 This is important in scenarios where all nodes are equally important for sensing and data collection
tasks.

Types of MAC Protocols Used in WSNs:

There are various types of MAC protocols designed specifically for WSNs, considering the unique requirements
of these networks. Some common types include:

1. TDMA-based MAC (Time Division Multiple Access):

 In this protocol, time is divided into slots, and each sensor node is allocated specific time slots to
transmit data. This ensures no two nodes transmit simultaneously, avoiding collisions and reducing
energy consumption.
  Advantages: High energy efficiency and low collisions.

 Disadvantages: Requires synchronization between nodes, adding complexity.

2. CSMA-based MAC (Carrier Sense Multiple Access):

 In CSMA, nodes listen to the channel before transmitting data. If the channel is clear, they proceed
with the transmission; if not, they wait.

 Advantages: Simple and decentralized.

 Disadvantages: May lead to collisions in high-traffic networks and increased energy consumption due
to idle listening.

3. Hybrid MAC Protocols:

 Some protocols combine TDMA and CSMA features to balance the trade-offs between energy
efficiency and collision avoidance. An example is the S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) protocol, which uses a
duty-cycling mechanism to save energy by alternating between sleep and active modes.

4. Cluster-based MAC Protocols:

 In some WSNs, nodes are grouped into clusters, and each cluster has a cluster head that manages
communication between nodes. The MAC protocol in these systems helps coordinate communication
within clusters and between cluster heads to optimize energy use and reduce collisions.

Q9. Explain Hidden and Exposed Terminals.

Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems

In wireless communication networks, including Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Wi-Fi, hidden
terminal and exposed terminal problems are two key issues that can cause communication inefficiencies,
particularly when multiple devices try to transmit data over a shared medium. These problems arise due to the
nature of wireless transmissions and the limited range of wireless signals.

1. Hidden Terminal Problem

The hidden terminal problem occurs when two devices (nodes) that are outside each other’s communication
range (i.e., they cannot "hear" each other) attempt to communicate with a common node (receiver) at the same
time. Since these two nodes are "hidden" from each other, they are unaware of each other's transmissions, which
can result in a collision at the common receiver.

Scenario:

 Node A and Node C want to send data to Node B.

 Node A and Node C cannot directly detect each other's transmissions because they are outside of each
other’s range.
  Both Node A and Node C try to transmit to Node B simultaneously, which causes a collision at Node
B.

 As a result, both transmissions fail, and the data has to be retransmitted, wasting bandwidth and energy.

Example:

Imagine two wireless devices, A and C, in a network, both trying to send data to a central access point B. If A
and C are far apart and cannot detect each other’s signals, they might transmit at the same time, causing their
signals to interfere at B, resulting in corrupted data at the access point.

Solution:

The Request to Send / Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) mechanism can help mitigate the hidden terminal problem:

 Node A sends a Request to Send (RTS) to Node B.

 If the channel is free, Node B responds with a Clear to Send (CTS).

 Node A can now transmit the data to Node B.

 If Node C overhears the CTS sent by Node B, it knows that Node A is currently transmitting and will
refrain from sending any data until the channel is clear.

By using RTS/CTS, hidden terminals are less likely to cause collisions because nodes that are out of range of
each other can be informed about ongoing transmissions.

2. Exposed Terminal Problem

The exposed terminal problem occurs when a node is prevented from sending data to another node because it
detects a transmission from a nearby node, even though the transmission would not cause a collision. This
means the node is unnecessarily prevented (or "exposed") from transmitting, resulting in inefficient use of the
available bandwidth.

Scenario:

 Node A is transmitting to Node B.

 Node C wants to send data to Node D, but Node C detects the transmission between Node A and Node
B.

 Even though Node C’s transmission to Node D would not interfere with Node A’s transmission to
Node B (since they are communicating with different nodes), Node C unnecessarily refrains from
sending its data because it believes the medium is busy.

Example:

Imagine a network where Node A is sending data to Node B, and Node C is trying to send data to Node D. If
Node C detects that Node A is transmitting, it might assume the channel is busy, even though Node C’s
transmission to Node D would not interfere with Node A’s transmission to Node B, because they are
communicating with different receivers. As a result, Node C unnecessarily waits and wastes bandwidth.

Solution:

To mitigate the exposed terminal problem, wireless networks can use techniques like spatial reuse, where nodes
are allowed to transmit if their transmissions do not interfere with ongoing transmissions to other nodes. Some
MAC protocols are designed to allow nodes to better understand whether they are truly causing interference or
not, improving the overall efficiency of the network.
Summary of Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems:

Problem Cause Effect Example Solution

Two nodes outside each Collisions at the Node A and Node C RTS/CTS mechanism
Hidden
other’s range try to send data receiver, leading to both transmit to Node to coordinate
Terminal
to a common node data loss B communication

A node unnecessarily Wasted bandwidth, Node C unnecessarily Spatial reuse

Exposed
refrains from transmitting reduced network waits while Node A techniques, better MAC
Terminal
due to a nearby transmission efficiency transmits protocol design

Q10. Write a short note on

a) CDMA
b) SDMA

Soln a) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a digital cellular technology used for transmitting multiple signals
over a shared communication medium. It allows numerous users to share the same frequency band
simultaneously by assigning unique codes to each user. Here’s a brief overview of CDMA:

Key Features of CDMA:

1. Unique Codes: Each user is assigned a unique code (or spreading code) that modulates their signal.
This code is much longer than the data being transmitted, effectively spreading the signal over a wider
bandwidth.
 2. Simultaneous Transmission: Unlike traditional methods like FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), where users are allocated separate frequencies or
time slots, CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously on the same frequency channel.

3. Interference Management: The unique codes enable the receiver to filter out unwanted signals and
extract the intended user's signal even in the presence of interference from other users. This results in
improved capacity and better quality of service.

4. Soft Handoffs: CDMA systems support smooth handoffs between base stations, which can improve
call quality and reduce dropped calls.

5. Efficient Bandwidth Usage: CDMA can accommodate more users than traditional systems due to its
efficient use of the available bandwidth.

Applications of CDMA:

 Widely used in mobile communications, especially in 3G cellular networks (like CDMA2000 and
WCDMA).

 Also used in satellite communications and some types of wireless local area networks (WLANs).

b) SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access) is a technique used in wireless communications to allow multiple
users to access the same frequency channel simultaneously by utilizing different spatial locations. This
technique leverages the physical separation of users to manage access to the shared communication medium.

Key Features of SDMA:

1. Spatial Separation: SDMA differentiates users based on their physical location. Users can be served
simultaneously if they are located in different spatial positions. This can be achieved through
directional antennas or smart antenna technologies.

2. Beamforming: SDMA often employs beamforming techniques, which focus the transmission and
reception of signals in specific directions, effectively creating "beams" for different users. This allows
for better signal quality and reduced interference.

3. Enhanced Capacity: By utilizing the spatial dimension, SDMA can significantly increase the capacity
of a communication system. Multiple users can communicate over the same frequency without
interference, maximizing the use of available bandwidth.
 4. User Tracking: SDMA systems can track users' movements, allowing for dynamic adjustment of the
beams to maintain connectivity as users change locations.

Applications of SDMA:

 Commonly used in cellular networks, especially in advanced systems like 4G and 5G, where spatial
diversity plays a crucial role.

 Employed in satellite communications and some wireless local area networks (WLANs) to enhance
capacity and reduce interference.