YRB

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

CONSTITUENTS OF THE NUCLEUS :

a) 1 H3 & 2He 4 b) 1 H 2 & 2 He3
The number of protons inside the nucleus is
called the atomic number (Z). The total number c) 3 Li7 & 4 Be8 d) 7 N17 , 8O18 & 9 F19
of nucleons (sum of protons and neutrons) is
called the mass number (A). (A–Z) gives the Isomers: Nuclei having the same mass number
number of neutrons in a nucleus. (A) and the same atomic number (Z) but different
REPRESENTATION OF NUCLEUS : radioactive properties are called isomers. They
Nucleus is represented by the symbol zxA. have different radioactive decay and possess different
magnetic momenta.
For example, the symbol 92U238 indicates that
the uranium nucleus contains 92 protons and E.g: m35Br80 metastable Bromine and g35Br80 ground
238 -92 = 146 neutrons. state Bromine are isomers.
CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEI : Isodiaphers :-
Isotopes : Nuclei having different Atomic number (Z)
and mass number (A) but with same excess number
i) The nuclei (nuclides) having same atomic
of neutrons over protons (A - 2Z) are called
number (Z) but different mass number (A) are
isodiaphers.
called isotopes.
Eg : 11Na23 13 Al27
. The isotopes of the some elements are the following
1 2 3 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU) :
a) Hydrogen : 1 H , 1H , 1H
i) The masses of atoms, nuclei, sub atomic particles
b) Oxygen : 8 O16 , 8O17 , 8O18 are very small. Hence, a small unit is used to express
these masses. This unit is called as atomic mass unit
c) Chlorine : 17 Cl35 , 17Cl37 (amu). 1 amu is equal to one twelth part of the
d) Uranium : 92 U 235 , 92 U 238 mass of carbon (6C12) isotope.
1
1amu  1u  mass of one carbon atom 
Isobars : 12
1 12 1
i) Nuclei (Nuclides) having same mass number    gm
12 N N
(A) but different atomic number (Z) are called
isobars. 1
 gm
Some of the examples of isobars are 6.023  10 23
 1.660565  10  24 gm
a) 1 H3 and 2He3 b) 6 C14 and 7 N14  1.660565  10  27 K g

c) 8 O17 and 9 F17 MASS - ENERGY EQUIVALENCE : According

Isotones : to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence principle, Mass
Nuclei having same number of neutrons are can be converted into energy & energy can be
called Isotones For isotones both the atomic number converted into mass according to the equation E= mC2
(Z) and mass number (A) are different but the value of When 1 amu of mass is converted in to energy
difference (A – Z) is same. Energy liberated is given by
Examples of isotones are as under :
E = (1.660565 x 10–27) x 9 x 1016 J = 931.5 MeV

1
 YRB NUCLEAR PHYSICS

hence 1 amu of mass is equivalent to 931.5 MeV V1 A1

V  R3  A  
of energy V2 A 2
 1 amu = 931.5 MeV/C 2 Application :
If a stationary nucleus splits in to two lighter nuclei
The masses of electron, proton and neutron in
with mass numbers A1 and A2 then according to law
terms of various units are :
of conservation of linear momentum, the two lighter
Mass of the electron = me = 9.1095 × 10-31 kg nuclei move in opposite directions with equal momenta
= 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV/C2 hence m1v1 = m2v2
Mass of the proton = mp = 1.6726 × 10-27 kg Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei
v1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3
= 1.007276 u = 938.28 MeV/C2
   
Mass of the neutron = mn = 1.6750 × 10-27 kg v 2 m1 A1  R 1 
= 1.008665 u = 939.573 MeV/C2 .  m  A  R 3 
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NUCLEUS :
Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei
1. Nuclear charge : Nucleus is positively charged
KE1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

due to the presence of protons in it.    

KE 2 m1 A1  R 1 
Charge of nucleus = Ze
 2 
where Z = no of protons KE  p & KE  1 when pis constant 
 2m m 
and e = 1.6 x 10–19 C be the charge of each proton.
2. Nuclear size : Application :
If a particle of charge q, mass m is projected
The estimated volume(V) of the nucleus is
towards a nucleus of charge Q with velocity v from
proportional to mass number (A). If ‘R’ is the radius
infinity, then the distance of closest approach (d) of
of the nucleus then charged particle towards the nucleus is obtained from
conservation of energy.
4 RA1/ 3
VA R 3A  R 3  A (or) KE of charged particle = PE of system
3 1 2 1 qQ
(or) R  R 0 A 1 / 3 mv 
2 4πε 0 d
Where R0 is proportionality constant and is same Ex : If an  -particle with an initial kinetic energy
for all the nuclei. It’s value is E approaches a target of atomic number Z and if
the distance of closest approach is "d" then.
R0  1.41015 m  1.4 fm 1 2 e Ze
15 E
Hence R  1.410 A m 1/ 3
(1fm = 10–15m) 4  0 d
Note : Average size of nucleus is of the order of 10– q = 2e = charge of  -particle
15m (fermi) Q = Ze = charge of nucleus
Application : If R, S and V be the Radius, 3. Nuclear Density :
surface area and volume of a nucleus with mass number Density stands for mass per unit volume. Consider
A then a nucleus of mass M and radius R, assuming that it is
1 almost a spherical distribution. Taking mass of each
1
 A 3
 1   1 
R nucleon 1 amu
R  A3
R 2  A 2  mass of the nucleus M = mass of A nucleons
2
2 = A  1.66  10 27 kg
 
S  R 2  A 3  1   1 
S A 3
M A1.6610  27
S2  A2   Density   
V 4
(1.410 15 )  A
3
2
YRB
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

binding energy.
  1.4531017 kg / m3 If all the masses are measured in atomic mass
Density distribution is not uniform through out a unit
given nucleus, It is maximum at the center of the nucleus Then BE  m931.5 MeV .
and its value falls off with distance r. If all the masses are measured in kg
NUCLEAR FORCES : then B.E = m C2 J
The attractive force which holds the nucleons Binding Fraction : The average binding energy
together in the nucleus is called nuclear force. per each nucleon is called Binding Fraction.
Properties of nuclear forces : BE m931.5
1) Nuclear forces are strongest forces in BE per nucleon =  MeV
A A
nature. Nuclear forces are about 1038 times as strong For stable nuclei the B.E per nucleon is large.
as gravitational forces.The relative strengths of the For unstable nuclei the B.E per nucleon will be small.
gravitational, Coulomb's and nuclear forces are Note : The stability of the nucleus is indicated by the
Fg : Fe : Fn  1:1036 :1038 average binding energy per nucleon rather than binding
2. Nuclear forces are short range forces . energy. If binding energy per nucleon is more for a
nucleus, then it is more stable. For example, if
3. Nuclear forces are basically strong at-
 BE1   BE 2 
   
 A    A 
tractive forces, but contain a small component of
repulsive forces. 1 2
. These repulsive forces that save the nucleus then nucleus 1 would be more stable.
from collapsing are known as hard core forces. Binding Energy Curve :
They are responsible for the finite volume of the The curve obtained on plotting the binding energy
nucleus. per nucleon versus the mass number is known as the
5. Nuclear forces are charge independent. binding energy curve.
6. Nuclear forces are spin-dependent.
MASS DEFECT
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

40 Fe56 Region of Greater stability

8.79 O Ca 40  A  180
The difference between the total mass of all C Ne
He
the nucleons of the nucleus and the actual mass N
F
7.6
of a nucleus is called “mass defect”. Li

Consider a nucleus having atomic number Z and mass

2
number A. It consists of Z protons and (A -Z) neutrons. 1 H
1
If mp and mn are the masses of a proton and a neutron 0 50 100 150 200 210

respectively then, mass of constituent nucleons = Zmp Mass number (A)

+ (A – Z) mn The main features of binding energy curve shown

If M is the mass of nucleus ZXA then mass defect in figure are :
of the nucleus of an atom is (1) The minimum value of binding energy per nucleon
m  Z m p  A  Z m n  M
is in the case of deuteron (1.11MeV).
BINDING ENERGY OF NUCLEUS :
The binding energy can be defined as the BE
(2) The maximum value of is 8.7MeV for the
energy released when protons and neutrons A
combine to form a nucleus. It can also be defined nucleus 28Fe56 (iron) which is the most stable.
as the energy required to break the nucleus into (3) Binding energy is high in the range 28<A<138.
its constituent protons and neutrons (or) The binding energy of these nuclei is very close to 8.7
Energy equivalent of mass defect is called
3
 YRB NUCLEAR PHYSICS

MeV. ARTIFICIAL TRANSMUTATION OF

(4) Further increase in the mass number, binding ELEMENTS :
energy per nucleon decreases and consequently for The conversion of one element into another
the heavy nuclei like uranium it is 7.6 MeV. by artificial means is called artificial
(5) In the region of smaller mass numbers, the binding transmutation of the element.
energy per nucleon curve shows the characteristic
minima and maxima. Minima are associated with nuclei NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION :
containing an odd number of protons and neutrons such When the nucleus of a heavier element is
bombarded with neutrons it splits up into two or
as 36 Li,10 14
5 B,7 N and the maxima are associated with
more smaller nuclei accompanied by energy.
nuclei having an even number of protons and neutrons Such a process is called nuclear fission.
such as 42 He,12 16
6 C,8 O . iThe nuclear fission of 92U235 is given by the following
(6) Nuclei with A > 220 are distinctly unstable. That nuclear reaction.
means from A > 220 single heavy nucleus breaks into 92 U 235 0 n1   92 U 236 
two nearly equal nuclei with mass number A < 150 56 Ba141 36 Kr 92  30 n1  energy
and so which are most stable. This process takes at
right of the BE curve as shown in figure . This process Energy released per fission of 92 U 235 nucleus
explains the nuclear fission.  0.214931  200MeV
(7) Light nuclei such as hydrogen combine to form NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION :
heavy nucleus to form helium for greater stability. This
process takes at left of the BE curve as shown in figure.
This process explains the nuclear fusion.
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

Ene
rgy rgy+
+
ne
+E
+

0 Mass number (A)

Fig
Note : Iron  28 Fe56  whose binding energy per Neutron multiplication factor (or) Reproduction
nucleon stands maximum at 8.7 MeV is most stable factor : The ratio of the number of neutrons in the
and will undergo neither fission nor fusion. present generation to the number of neutron in the
2. A + B  C + D + Q previous genration is called Neutron multiplication factor
Here A and B are called Reactants (K)
C and D are called Products no.of neutrons in the present generation
Q is the amount of energy released K=
no.of neutrons in the previous generation
Energy Released Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg] If K < 1, the number of neutrons in successive
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu) generations decreases and the chain reaction can not
Energy released Q = (B.E)P – (B.E)R continue (Sub critical state)
If K = 1, the chain reaction will proceed at a steady
rate and the chain reaction can be controlled (critical

4
YRB
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

state) Construction : A nuclear reactor consists of thick

e.g : nuclear reactor blocks of carbon surrounded by thick absorbing walls
If K > 1, the number of neutrons increases and of concrete as shown in figure. The other parts of the
the reacion is said to be uncontrolled chain reaction ( nuclear reactor are as follows :
super critical state) 1) Nuclear fuel and clad: The fissionable
e.g : atom bomb material used in the reactor is called nuclear fuel.
To sustain the chain reaction the mass of The nuclear fuels used are natural uranium, enriched
uranium should be equal (or) more than a uranium, plutonium, uranium - 233.
particular amount of mass called ‘critical mass’
2) Moderator :The material used to slow down
NUCLEAR REACTOR :
the fast moving neutrons produced as a result of
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear nuclear fission is called moderator.
fission can be carried out through sustained and
a controlled chain reaction. It is also called an 3) Control rods : The materials that can absorb
atomic pile. the neutrons are used to control the nuclear chain
Control Rods reaction. Cadmium or boron rods are used for this
Moderator
Steam to
purpose.
Turbines
4) Coolant : A large amount of heat is developed in
Coolant
the reactor due to chain reaction . The heat generated
Concrete wall

Coolant in fuel elements is removed by using a suitable coolant

to flow around them. The coolants used are water at
Water high pressures, molten sodium etc.
U235 in Aluminium Cylinders

5) Protective shield : Nuclear radiations like beta and gamma rays are emitted during fission reaction, in
addition to neutrons,. Any radiation leaking out of reactor core harms the personnel working near the reactor.
Suitable shielding such as steel, lead, concrete etc are provided around the reactor to absorb and reduce the
intensity of radiations to such low levels that do not harm the operating personnel.
Working of Reactor : Uranium fuel rods are placed in the aluminum cylinders which are separated by some
distance. The graphite moderator is placed in between the fuel cylinders. To control the number of neutrons, a
number of control rods of cadmium or boron are placed in the holes of graphite block. When a few U235 nuclei
undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated. These neutrons pass through the surrounding graphite moderator and
loose their energy to become thermal neutrons. These thermal neutrons are captured by U235 to carry out the
chain reaction. By proper arrangement of the control rods (raising and lowering the rods) the fission events are
suitably controlled. The heat generated here is used for heating suitable coolants which in turn heat water and
produce steam. This steam is made to rotate steam turbine and there by drive a generator for production of
electric power.
BREEDER REACTORS:
A breeder reactor converts non - fissionable material, such as U238, into fissionable material and
the reactor produces or “breeds” more fuel than it consumes.
POWER REACTORS :
nE n
P here be the number of fissions per second and E be the energy released in each fission
t t
E = 200 MeV
 200106 1.61019 J 5
 YRB NUCLEAR PHYSICS

= 3.2 x 10-11J
n P
Note : Number of fissions per sec in a reactor of power 1 W is given by 
t E
1

3.21011
= 3.125 x 1010 fissions per sec
Note : If only x% of energy released in fission is converted into electrical energy then out put power of reactor is

x  nE 
P  
100  t 
Note : If ‘x’gm of fuel with mass number ‘A’
completely undergo nuclear fission in time t sec in a
reactor then its power is given by
x
Number of moles in x gm of fuel =
A
Number of atoms (nuclei) present in x gm of
x
fuel n    N A
 A 
Where NA is Avogadro number
nE
 power P 
t
xN A E
 P
At
Uses of Nuclear Reactors:
1) To generate electric power.
2) To produce nuclear fuel plutonium -239 and
other radioactive materials which have a wide variety
of applications in the fields of medicine, industry and
research.
NUCLEAR FUSION :
The process of the formation of a single stable
nucleus by fusing two or more light nuclei is
called nuclear fusion. The energy released in this
processes called fusion energy. Simple example for
fusion reaction is, formation of a helium nucleus by
fusing of four hydrogen nuclei and releasing 25.7MeV
of energy.
4 1H1   2He 4  2 1e 0  25.7 MeV .
In fission of 235U, the energy released
per nucleon is about 0.85MeV.
6 In the fusion of four protons, the energy released
YRB
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The fusion energy per nucleon in about 7 times more hv

than fission energy per nucleon e e
PAIR PRODUCTION AND +
Fe Fe
PAIR ANNIHILATION :
(a) Conversion of Photon energy to mass (Pair hv
production) : Fig 15.36
When an energetic   photon falls on a heavy Here two   photons are produced in order to
nucleus it is absorbed by the nucleus and a pair of conserve the energy and momentum. If both electron-
electron and positron is formed. This phenomenon is
called pair production and can be represented by the positron initially of rest, the minimum energy of the each
following equation : emitted photon is 0.51 MeV. If electron and positron
0 0 with some kinetic energy initially, then energy of each
hv  1  1
photon (Positron ) electron  emitted photon is more than 0.51MeV.

 m0C 2  KE 
Electron
Positron
Photon
Nucleus
( m0C 2  KE )
Fig 15.35

The rest mass energy of each of electron or

positron is :
E0  m0 C2
 9.11031 3108 
2

= 8.2 x 10-14J
= 0.51MeV.
Hence for pair production, the minimum energy
of   photon must be 2 x 0.51 = 1.02 MeV. If the
energy of   photon is less than this, there may be
Compton’s effect. If energy of   photon is greater
than E0, then extra energy will become kinetic energy
of the particles. If E is the energy of   photon, then
kinetic energy of each particle will be,
E  2E 0
K electron  K positron  .
2
(b) Conversion of mass into photon energy (Pair
Annihilation) :
The inverse process of pair production is called
pair annihilation. According to it when electron and a
positron come close to each other, they annihilate each
other and produces two   photons. Thus
0 0
1  1  2h
Positron  electron  photon 