MOBILE COMPUTING

Lecture Notes
On
Mobile Computing
 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT-1
Computer Network
Connection of various devices like Desktop PC, Laptop, Printer, Scanner, Server etc. with each
other through wire or without wire (Known as warless wireless) for data transmission is known
as computer network.

Wired Network
In this type of network devices can be connected using CAT5 or CAT6, Co-axial Cable and Optical
Fiber.

Wireless network: -
It is a type of network where data can be
transmitted between communicating devices
without using physical transmission media.

In wireless network radio wave, micro wave, and

infrared can be used as transmission media
which is also known as unguided media.

The various example of wires communicating

devices are cellphone, laptop, DTH (direct to
home), wireless keyboard & mouse, TV remote etc.

Advantage of wireless network: -

1) It can be expanded to any distance.

2) It can solve the problem where laydown of cable is not possible.
3) It can connect thousands of devices at a time. 4) It can connect remote devices.

Disadvantage of wireless network: -

1) Lack of network security. Hacker can hack the system or device at any time.
2) Implementation of wireless network is very costly.

Mobile computing

It is a computing environment while the user is roaming outside of the building or campus.
During roaming or moving, the user can able to access data, information & hardware or
software from the server through network. The mobile computing process allows the user to
perform any task from anywhere (public place) using a computing device.

For an effective mobile computing environment, it is necessary that the communication system
should be spread over both wired and wireless network.

Example of Mobile Computing devices are Cellphone, Laptop, Wi-Fi Dongle, Access Point Etc.

Various dimensions of mobile computing: -

1) Location awareness: - A mobile device is not always at the same place so to maintain the location
of the user various application are used for locating the device.

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2) QOS (quality of service): - In a mobile computing network, connection can be lost at any time. So,
it is the responsibility of the service provider to provide better service to the user so that the loss of
network connection can be minimized.
3) Limited device storage capacity: - Most of the wireless device have limited storage capacity. Now
the engineers are trying to improve the storage capacity of the mobile device day by day.

4) Limited power supply: - All the mobile devices are running in the battery power. Due to small size
of mobile device the battery size is very small. So, the battery provides a limited power supply to the
mobile. If the battery goes down then the device will also shut down or turn off.

Characteristics of mobile computing: -

1) User mobility: - The mobile computing provides user mobility facility that means a user
can moves from one pace to other place while using mobile devices.
2) Network mobility; - A user can move from one network to other network and user will
get the same type of service from the other network.
3) Bearer mobility: - User of a mobile device can move from one bearer to other bearer
and the user gets the same service and facility, for example an user uses WAP (wireless
application protocol) technology in a particular area but when the user moves to other
area where there is no WAP facility but the user can get the same service from the new
bearer in other format.
4) Device mobility: - User can transfer its task from one device to other device and the user
will get the same facility.
5) Session mobility: -User’s session can be moved from one device to another device
without any interruption.
6) Service mobility: - User can be able to switch between various services while roaming.

Mobile computing functions: -

1. User with device: - It is a fixed device like desktop, pc, laptop, cellphone, palmtop, etc.
2. Network: - It can be used by a user in different places at different time when the user is
in a roaming mode.
3. Gateway: - It converts one specific application or bearer to other application or bearer.
For example, from a fixed phone we access the services by pressing different keys on
the phone. These keys generate DTMF (dual tone multi-function). These are analog
signal which are then converted into digital format by IVR (interactive voice response).
4. Middle ware network: - In the middle ware, an application software functioning
between operating system and user.
5. Content: - It is a server where the original contents are stored. This can be application
system of both application and server. This server is connected to database to access
various data as per the user requirements.

Application of mobile computing: - GPS SYSTEM, TRAFFIC CONTROL, WATCHING VIDEO WHILE
MOVING, ACCESSING EMAIL, GETTING THE POSITION OF TRAIN ETC.

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UNIT-2
Introduction to mobile development framework Client server architecture
It is a type of architecture where all the
computers including remote
computers known as CLIENT are connected
through wire or without wire to a High-End
computer called SERVER. Many clients can
access the server’s information
simultaneously, and, at the same time, a
client computer can perform other tasks,
such as sending e-mail. Because both client
and server computers are considered
intelligent devices

This type of network architecture can provide

an interface in such way, so that a client can
send request to the server for various kind of
services like Operating System, Database, Files, Software, Hardware, Internet etc.

Server: It is a High-End computer that always receives the request from other computers, known
as clients, over a network and provides various kind of services, resources, data, to the clients.
The various types of Server are...

Application Server, File Server, Print Server, Mail Server, Database Server, Web Server and so
on…

Client: It is a type of computer that accesses various services made available by a server as part
of the client–server network model. The various types of client computers are…

1. Thick Client

2. Thin Client

3. Hybrid Client

For example, in a banking system a client computer can be running an application program for entering
customer information while the server computer is running another program that manages the database in
which the information is permanently stored.

Advantages: -

• Centralized server is more stable and reliable.

• Security can be provided by the server.
• Server can be access from different places.
• Data can be stored centrally.

Disadvantage: -

• Due to central server the entire network goes down if the central server has any
problem.

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• The central server required regular maintenance and updating

• Installation of server is very costly.
Types of Client Server Architecture

There are four main categories of client-server

computing:

One-Tier architecture: consists of a simple

program running on a single computer without
requiring access to the network.

In this category of client-server setting, the user

interface, marketing logic and data logic are
present in the same system. This kind of service is reasonable but it is hard to manage due to
data variance that allots replication of work. Onetier architecture consists of layers.

For example, Presentation, Business, Data Access layers within a single software package. The
data is usually stored in the local system or a shared drive. Applications which handle all the
three tiers such as MP3 player, MS Office come under one-tier application.

Two-Tier architecture: In this type of

clientserver environment, the user interface is
stored at client machine and the database is
stored on the server. Database logic and
business logic are filed at either client or server
but it needs to be maintained.

It consists of Client, Server, and Protocol that

creates a link between client and server.
The Graphical User Interface code resides on the client host and the domain logic resides on the
server host. The client-server GUI is written in high-level languages such as C++ and Java.

In two-tier architecture, client and server have

to come in direct incorporation. If a client is
giving an input to the server there shouldn’t be
any intermediate. This is done for rapid results
and to avoid confusion between different
clients. For instance, online ticket reservations
software uses this two-tier architecture.

Three-Tier architecture: In this type of C/S

model, there are three levels of communication
process. The 3-Tier architecture divided into 3
parts Presentation layer (Client Tier), Application layer (Business Tier) and Database layer
(Data Tier). This architecture increases productivity through the practice of cost-efficient user
interfaces, improved data storage, expanded connectivity and secure services.

The Three-tier architecture is split into 3 parts, namely, Presentation layer (Client Tier),
Application layer (Business Tier) and Database layer (Data Tier). The Client system manages

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Presentation layer; the Application server takes care of the Application layer, and the Server
system supervises Database layer.

N-Tier architecture: It is more than 3tier

and also known as multi-tier
architecture where the Presentation,
Processing, and Data functions are
divided into logically and physically. The
n tier architecture is usually associated
with www or web services. The web
server provides the web service as per
the client request. The good example is
online shopping.

With n-tier architecture, we can adopt

new technologies and add
more
components without having to rewrite the entire application or redesigning our whole software,
thus making it easier to maintain.

Basically, it is an industry-proven software architecture model. It is suitable to support

enterprise level client-server applications by providing solutions to scalability, security, fault
tolerance, reusability, and maintainability. It helps developers to create flexible and reusable
applications.

Benefits of N-Tier Architecture

• Secure: You can secure each of the three tiers separately using different methods.
• Easy to manage: You can manage each tier separately, adding or modifying each tier
without affecting the other tiers.
• Scalable: If you need to add more resources, you can do it per tier, without affecting the
other tiers.
• Flexible: Apart from isolated scalability, you can also expand each tier in any manner that
your requirements dictate

P 2 P OR (Peer to Peer)

It’s a network in which the computers are managed independently of one another and have
equal rights for initiating communication with each other, sharing resources, and validating
users.

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A peer-to-peer network has no special server for

authenticating users. Each computer manages its
own security, so a separate user account might
need to be created for each computer that a user
needs to access. Users usually store files on their
own computers and are responsible for ensuring
that those files are appropriately backed up. In a
peer-to-peer network, each computer typically
runs both client and server software and can be
used to make resources available to other users
or to access shared resources on the network.

Peer-to-peer networks are simple to set up and are often ideal for small businesses that have
fewer than 10 computers and that cannot afford a server-based solution. The disadvantages of
peer-to-peer networks are poor security and lack of centralized file storage and backup facilities.

Some uses of P2P architecture:

• File sharing
• Instant messaging
• Voice Communication
• Collaboration
• High Performance Computing

Some examples of P2P architecture:

• Napster - it was shut down in 2001 since they used a centralized tracking server
• Bit Torrent - popular P2P file-sharing protocol, usually associated with piracy
• Skype - it used to use proprietary hybrid P2P protocol, now uses client-server model after
Microsoft’s acquisition

Advantages: -

• It is very easy to install.

• Few hardware is required for installation.
• No central server is required.
Disadvantage: -

• User cannot store data centrally.

• Lack of security is much higher than client server model.

Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network:

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S.NO CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are In Peer-to-Peer Network,

differentiated, Specific server and clients are Clients and server are not
1. present. differentiated.

While Peer-to-Peer Network

Client-Server Network focuses on information focuses on connectivity.
2. sharing.

While in Peer-to-Peer
In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is Network, each peer has its
3. used to store the data. own data.

While in Peer-to-Peer
Network, Each and every
node can do both request
In Client-Server Network, Server respond the and respond for the
4. services which is request by Client. services.

While Peer-to-Peer
Network are less costly
Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer- than Client-Server
5. toPeer Network. Network.

While Peer-to-Peer Network

Client-Server Network are more stable than are less stable if number of
6. Peer-to-Peer Network. peer is increase.

While Peer-to-Peer
Network is generally suited
Client-Server Network is used for both small for small networks with
7. and large networks. fewer than 10 computers.

N tier and www: -

• The n tier architecture is usually associated with www. The web service is based on client
server architecture and the communication is made through http or some other protocols.
• The web server provides the web service as per the client request. The good example is
online shopping.

Consider Amazon.com as an example:

• Amazon needs to be accessible from anywhere, anytime and on any platform (PC; Tablet;
Smartphone) so just on the Presentation Tier there are, in fact, several tiers with distinct
“flavors” (Windows, iOS, Android).
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• The Business Logic Tier itself comprehends not only servers distributed by several
geographies processing data, but also automated input from warehouses and logistics
components (tiers) that process data by themselves (distinct software layers) to convey
information to the Amazon Business Logic Tier (so several tiers here also).
• Finally, the Data Tier is not only replicated and distributed but split as well into distinct
levels of data instances (layers) in separate servers (tiers).

Mobile agent architecture; -

Mobile agents are small intelligent programs that travel around in a computer network. They
are given instructions by the user or programmer and then wander out in the network to
accomplish their assigned task. They can be told to collect information, report problems,
perform computations or modify existing programs on other computers in the network. In order
to work, the mobile agents need a special infrastructure in the network that handles the
execution and transportation of the agents. Mobile agents are a new technology that has
emerged with the increased use of computer networks and the arrival of the Internet and web
technologies.

Applications of Mobile Agents

Several applications
benefit from the use of
mobile agent
technology. Some
of these include

Electronic Commerce:
Many commercial
transactions require
access to resources in
real time. The ability of
a mobile agent to
personify their creators’
intentions and to act
and negotiate on behalf
of them makes it well
suited for electronic commerce.

Personal Assistance: An agent can act as a personal assistant to the user and perform tasks for
user on a remote host regardless of whether or not user is connected to the network. For
instance, to schedule a meeting, a user can dispatch a mobile agent onto the network to interact
with agents belonging to other users. The agent can negotiate with other agents the convenient
time for all of the users and can schedule a meeting.

Telecommunication networks services: Mobile agents provide an effective and flexible solution
to the management of advanced telecommunication services by providing dynamic network
reconfiguration and user customization.

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UNIT- 3
Wireless transmission

In the physical layer of the OSI model, data is transmitted in the form signal using a transmission
media. That transmission media may be a physical cable or it can be an open space called
wireless transmission media. In wireless transmission media, we are using radio wave, micro
wave and infrared as a signal for data transmission. In standard wireless transmission process,
we are using radio wave as transmission media.

Signal
It is the physical representation of data. Data
can be either analog or digital. For an example,
human voice is always an analog data but the
television video and voice are digital signal.
Both analog and digital signals are periodic.

The various signal parameters are AMPLITUDE

(A), FREQUENCY (F) and PHASE (P).

Analog signal: -A simple analog signal is a sine

wave. The sine wave is the most fundamental
form of analog signal. The periodic signal completes a pattern within a time frame is called
periodic signal. The completion of one full pattern is called cycle. Analog signal requires less
bandwidth as compare to digital signal and also it has simple circuit to transmit data.

Digital signal: -It is a type of signal that carries the information in the form of off/on or 1/0 pulse.
Digital signal consists of pulses. The value of each pulse is constant. It has two amplitude levels
that is 0 and 1. Sometime it is also called true and false. Digital signal requires high bandwidth
as compare to analog signal and it also requires a very complicated circuit to transmit data over
the network.

Period and frequency of wireless

• Period is the amount of the time that a signal needs to complete one cycle.
• Frequency is the measurement of the no. of occurrence of repeated signal per second.
It can also be defined as no. of periods in one second.

Bandwidth
Network bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications link to
transmit the maximum amount of data from one point to another over a computer network or

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internet connection in a given amount of time that is in one second, It is also known as Data
Transfer Rate,

In other words, it is the difference between the highest frequency and the lowest frequency of
the transmission media. For example, if a transmission media carries frequencies between
1000 and 6000 than the bandwidth of the transmission media (6000-1000=5000).

Antenna
It is a type of device which is used for sending and receiving of radio
waves. It is also known as transducer. Mainly it is used in broadcasting
of television network, wireless network and radio network. It always
sends and receives radio signals.
Antennas are designed to transmit and receive signals in all directions
equally (omnidirectional antennas), or in a particular direction (directional antennas).
The first antenna was built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz
in his pioneering experiments to prove the existence of waves
predicted by the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell.
There are mainly two types of antennas we are using.

1. Omni directional antenna transmits signal in all directions. But wireless LAN and WAN
uses omnidirectional antenna for data transmission. MOBILE PHONE is good example of
omnidirectional antenna

2. Directional antenna or Beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives

greater power in specific directions allowing increased performance and reduced
interference from unwanted sources. Directional antennas provide increased
performance over omnidirectional antennas. DTH is good example of directional
antenna

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Propagation mode of wireless communication

Propagation mode is
the process of traveling
signals from sender to receiver
is known as propagation mode
of channel/signal. It can be
used in both guided
and unguided media. In
unguided media the signal
travels in the following format.
These are

1. Ground propagation mode

2. Sky propagation mode
3. Line of sight propagation mode

• Ground propagation mode: -

In this type of propagation mode, the radio wave travels towards lowest portion of the
atmosphere. It uses low frequency signals and it transmits the signal in all direction. In
this technique if the signals strength is strong, then the signal will cover a large area.
Very large range propagation mode is possible using this type of propagation mode.

• Sky propagation mode: -

In this propagation process, the signal will move from the sender to the ionosphere,
then from ionosphere it will come back to the receiver using refraction technology. At
the ionosphere, the signal strongly refracted and ultimately it come back to the ground
level. This type of propagation mode has 2-30 MHz of frequency band.

• Line of sight propagation mode: -

In this process, the signal is transmitted from sender to receiver directly. In other words,
the signal is transmitted from point to point. In this technique no refraction technology
is required. Both the sender and the receiver is aligned in a same line or point to point
basis. In this propagation mode very high frequency band that is 30 MHz can be
transmitted. In this transmission process any kind of obstacle or natural calamities are
not allowed.

Multiplexing
The combination of signals, is known as multiplexing. It is a technique that provides a mechanism
to share the use of common channel by two or more devices. In this technique more than one
signal can be sent using a single transmission channel or media. Mobile cellular system uses
various techniques to allow multiple users to access the same radio signals at the same time.
Multiplexing can be achieved in various ways. The various multiplexing techniques are: -

1. SDM (SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)

2. FDM (FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)
3. TDM (TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)
4. CDM (CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)

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Space Division Multiplexing

In this technique the available space
is divided along with the user and
allowed to transmit data using the
same transmission channel at the
same time. Channels are assigned
on the basis of space with frequency
further it assures that there is no
interference between users. IN this
technique, overlap and recovery of
each signal is possible at the receiver site. It uses a guard band that consist of unused frequency
of the channel to avoid overlapping and interference.

Frequency division Multiplexing

It is a technology in which each signal is allocated a frequency slot within the sane transmission
channel. In other words the total available frequency bandwidth in the transmission channel is
divided into several frequency channels and each channel is assigned to one information signal
and the information signal carry the assigned frequency bandwidth throughout the transmission
process. At the receiving end of the transmission channel individual channels are separated by
using a circuit called D-multiplexer and handed over to the proper user.

Time Division Multiplexing

It is a type of multiplexing where two or more channels of information are transmitted over the
sane transmission channel by allocating different time intervals through transmission channel.
At the receiving end, a different type of signal is required to separate the data signal fir each
user. The TDM is inefficient when the traffic is less or there is no data transmission.

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Code Division Multiplexing

It is a technique in which each channel transmits its data bits in the form of pulse. It allows
signal from individual user to be transmitted at the same time over the same frequency band.
At the receiving end particular code is again converted into signal and handed over to the
appropriate user. In this process, all users having different code can be transmitted on fiber
optic cable. It is also known as speed spectrum.

Modulation
Signal consists of two components data or information signal and carrier signal. Before the
transmission both the signals are combined together and transmitted in the channel. The
process of combining the signal is called modulation and the new generated signal is called
modulated signal. The modulation process can change the amplitude and frequency and phase
of the carrier signal. A device that performs the modulation process is known as Modulator and
the device that performs reverse process of the signal is called Demodulator. A device that can
perform both work is called MODEM. There are mainly two types of modulation process i.e.,
analog modulation, digital modulation process. Now third modulation is added called phase
modulation.

Analog modulation
Conversion of analog signal, is called analog modulation. The various analog modulation are as
follows: -
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• Amplitude modulation (AM)

It is a modulation technique used in
electronic communication, for
transmitting information via a radio
carrier wave. In amplitude
modulation, the amplitude (signal
strength) of the carrier wave is varied
in proportion to that of the message
signal.

In this modulation the amplitude of the

carrier is modulated as per the message
signal. The other facts of the carrier
signal like frequency and phase remains
constant. This form of modulation is not so efficient way to transmit data because it requires
huge power supply as compare to FM technology. AM was the earliest modulation method
used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting.

• Frequency modulation (FM)

In this modulation, only frequency of the
carrier wave can be changed along with the
audio signal. In this process, amplitude and
phase of the carrier wave remains
constant. This technology is developed to
overcome the problems of interference
and noise which is created in amplitude
modulation technology. It is used for radio
programs to avoid noise. It can be also used
for the broadcasting of audio portion of TV
network.

• Phase modulation (PM)

In this modulation, the information can be
transmitted in the form of phase of a
transmission media. It is widely used for
transmitting radio wave and it is an integral
part of many digital transmission like Wi-Fi
GSM and satellite TV network.

Digital Modulation
In digital modulation an analog carrier signal is modulated by digital bit streams of either equal
or varying signal. This is also known as analog to digital conversion. The various types of
conversion are: -

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• Frequency shifting key

It is a frequency modulation scheme
in which digital information
is transmitted through
discrete frequency changes of a
carrier signal.
The technology is
used for communication
systems such as
telemetry, caller ID, garage door
openers, and low frequency radio
transmission in the VLF (Very low
frequency 3 to 30 KHz)
and ELF (Extremely low frequency 3
to 30 Hz only) bands.

It allows digital information to be

transmitted by
changing the frequency of carrier signal which is
also known as sine wave. There are 2 binary states in a digital signal i.e. 0 and 1. These binary
data is converted using FSK technology which can be transmitted through telephone line,
fiber optic and wireless transmission media. • Amplitude shifting key
It is the technology where the
amplitude of the carrier wave can be
modulated with digital signal and
transmitted through the transmission
channel.

In this process, if the modulated signal

has the value that is 1 then the signal can
be transmitted. If the modulated signal
has the value i.e., 0 then the signal
cannot be transmitted.

• Phase shifting key

It is a digital modulation scheme based on
changing of the carrier signal. It transmits
data by modifying the phase of a carrier
signal. It is used in wireless LAN, Bluetooth
technology and RFID (radio frequency
identification standard used for biometric
processes).
Speed spectrum: it is radio frequency communication system in which the signal bandwidth is
spread over a large area by injecting a higher frequency signal. In spread spectrum technology
the transmission is much higher than data or information signal. In this technology, first data is
modulated for transmission then the carrier is modulated by spreading the bandwidth of the
spectrum. The various types of spread spectrum are DSSS (Direct sequence spread spectrum).
In this technology, digital information can be transmitted by mixing the information channel
with a pseudo code whose bandwidth is much higher than the carrier signal. It uses very low
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power supply for transmitting the signal. The frequency of the signal is known as ISM (industrial
scientific and medical band).

FHSS (frequency hopping spread spectrum)

It is the form of spreading the frequency of carrier signal which can be changed many times
within a fix time period. The data signal can move from one place to other place using the
frequency range of the carrier signal. In this technology the transmitting device, first verify the
channel whether the channel is free or not. If the channel is free then the transmission process
starts through the transmission channel. Cellular
system or cell systems
Cellular communications system is a wireless mobile
communications system that divides a large geographic
area into smaller sections or cells, each with a low-power
wireless transmitter, for the purpose of optimizing the
use of a limited number of frequencies. A cellular mobile
communication system uses a large number of low power
wireless transmitters to create cells within the service
area of a wireless communication system.
How do cellular systems work?
In the cellular system, the service area is divided into cells. A transmitter is designed to serve
an individual cell. The system seeks to make efficient use of available channels by using
lowpower transmitters to allow frequency reuse at much smaller distances.

The power level of a transmitter within the cell must be limited in order to avoid the interference
with the other transmitter of neighboring cell.

Cell: -

Cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. A cell can transmit over a small geographic
area which is varying depending on the geographic area and landscape. The various type of cells are: -

• Micro cell: - it is a type of cell which is used in high density population area where the cell may
have a transmitting capacity around 1km.
• Pico-cell: - it is a type of cell used for covering very small area like in a building inside a tunnel.
• Selective cell: - this type of cell can be used where 360° coverage area is not required.
• Umbrella cell: - this type of cell is used in handover process of different neighboring cells.
• Macro cell: - this type of cell can be used for remote area and low-density populated area
A cell cluster is a group of cells. No channels are used within the cluster. Number of clusters
plays very important role as there are so many no. Of cells in a cluster so each cell capacity
should be increased to take care of the data transmission properly and without having any
interference.

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Frequency reuse

The concept of frequency reuse is based on radio

channel used within a particular geographic area. In this
technique a cell can be assigned group of channels or
no. of channels which is completely different from
neighboring channels. In this process, the coverage area
of cell is called foot print. This foot print is limited in a
particular area so that the transmission channels can be
used properly.

Cell splitting

In this process, a single cell can be spitted into a smaller cell area where more users can be
accommodated. This splitting of cells can be used in unburned areas where much more users
are there. A large cell can be utilized in remote area, villages as well as less populated areas.

Hand off process/ hand over

• It is happening when the cell phone network

automatically transferred to other cell phone
network with the same radio frequency without
disconnecting the phone call.
• When the mobile unit (cell phone) moves out of
the coverage area of a given cell site, the signal
becomes weak. At this point of time the mobile
device uses hand off process to continue the
call
• In this process the signal can be switched from the existing service provider to a
new service provider without interrupting the call.

Cellular radio: -

• Each base station provides radio signal to cover a particular geographical area called cell.
Base station is connected to one another through central switching system.
• The central switching system tracks the signal and transfer to other cell side accordingly.
• The size of each cell depends on 3 factors: -
1- Environmental condition
2- The frequency band of the signal or the service provider.
3- The capacity of the required cell in any given area.

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UNIT-4
Media access control
Introduction
When number of signal sources attempt to access a wireless medium simultaneously the
network encounters the problem of receiving signals separately. So to overcome this problem
the signals are divided into different cells. These cells are SDMA, TDMA, FDMA and CDMA
signals.

The basic access method

The basic access mechanism is carrier scene multiple access (CSMA). It is of two types.

1. CSMA/ CA (Carrier scene multiple access with collision avoidance)

2. CSMA/CD (Carrier scene multiple access with collision detection)

In CSMA protocol when a station wants to transmit data, first it senses the medium, if the
medium is busy than the station will pause its transmission for some time. If the medium is free
than the station allows data transmission.

CSMA/CA: In this protocol it uses to “short signaling package” for collision avoidance. These two
packages are “Request to send” (RTS) and “Clear to Send” (CTS).

The sender requests the RTS from a receiver before it sends a data package. The receiver grants
RTS as soon as it is ready to receive.

CSMA/CD: in this technology the sender first sense the medium to verify whether it is free or
not. If the medium is busy the sender will wait until it is free. If the medium is free than the
sender starts transmitting data and continuous to listen the medium. If the sender detects a
collision file sending, it stops data transmission.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

FDMA assigns individual channels to individual users. Each user is allocated a unique frequency
channel. These channels are assigned on demand to subscribers who request service. Guard
bands are used to maintain the gap between adjacent signal spectra to minimize cross talk.
During the period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency band. In frequency
division duplex (FDD) systems, the users are assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one
frequency is used for the upward channel, while the other frequency is used for the downward
channel. This technology is used in all the first generation (1 G) analog mobile networks.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared-medium
networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal
into different time slots. The users transmit data in a sequence, one after the other, using its
own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium. TDMA
is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM). It was also used in satellite system. It is more expensive technique compared to FDMA
because it needs proper synchronization between sender and receiver.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

It is a broad band system
so it is different from
FDMA and TDMA. In this
technology all
subscribers in a cell uses
the same frequency
band simultaneously. To
separate the signals each
subscriber is assigned a
code called chip. CDMA
transmits a weak signal
across a wide frequency
band. It uses spread
spectrum technique
where each subscriber
uses the entire
bandwidth. It is used in GPS system, communication and navigation system.

Space Division multiple Access (SDMA):

Space division multiple access or spatial division
multiple access is a technique which is MIMO
(multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and
used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following
features.

• All users can communicate at the same

time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellite’s receivers of the same frequency.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can
track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space. Hidden/Exposed Terminal

Hidden Node Problem

In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal problem occurs when a
node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with
that AP.

Each node is within the communication range of the AP, but the nodes cannot communicate
with each other, as they do not have a physical connection to each other.

For Example:

Station A can communicate with Station B.

Station C can also communicate with Station
B. However, Station A and C
cannot communicate with each other since
they cannot sense each other on the network,
because they are out of range of each other.
If A & C sends data to B at the same time than
there will be a collision occur at B. So here A
is hidden terminal for C and vice versa.

Exposed Terminal

In wireless LANs (wireless local area networks), the exposed terminal problem is a transmission
problem that arises when a transmitting station is prevented from sending frames due to
interference with another transmitting station. This is prevalent in decentralized systems where
there isn’t any entity for controlling transmissions. This occurs when a station is visible from a
wireless access point (AP), but not from other stations that communicate with the AP.

Example:
Suppose that there are four stations labelled
STA, STB, STC, and STD, where STB and STC are
transmitters while STA and STD are receivers at
some slot of time. The stations are in a
configuration such that the two receivers STA
and STD are out of radio range of each other,
but the two transmitters STB and STC are in
radio range of each other.

The above diagram shows that a transmission is

going on from STB to STA. STC falsely concludes that the above transmission will cause interference
and so stops its transmission attempts to STD. However, the interference would not have occurred
since the transmission from STC to STD is out of range of STB. This prevention of transmission is
called exposed terminal problem.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

Solution

The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer protocol IEEE 802.11
RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized and frame sizes and data speed are the
same. RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for Clear to Send.

A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station replies by sending
a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station begins transmission.

Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long enough for the
CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and remains silent during the data
transmission.

In the above example, station STC hears RTS from station STB, but does not hear CTS from station STA.
So, it is free to transmit to station STD.

Near-far Terminal

It is happening in CDMA based systems in which two transmitters one close to the Base Station
and other far from the Base Station transmit at an equal power but the signal received from the
closer transmitter has high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) (Good) while the Signal received from the
far transmitter has low SNR (Bad) at the Base Station. Sometimes the receiver cannot detect the
weaker signal received from the far transmitter. In order to receive the signal from the far
transmitter, the Base Station will have to increase its transmission power but this will cause
more noise. The CDMA Phone which is far from the Base Station will have to transmit at a power
higher than the closer transmitters in order to maintain good SNR at the Base station.

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UNIT-5
Wireless LAN and communication
WLAN is known as “Wireless Local Area Network”. It provides a flexible data communication
without replacing the wired LAN within a building or campus. WLAN uses Radio Frequency,
Microwave and Infrared to send and receive data over the air. It allows user mobility in the
premises without losing network connectivity.
Infrared
The spectrum between microwaves and visible light is known as Infrared. In infrared, there is a
LED that transmits the infrared signal. At the receiving end a photodiode or photoreceptor
detects and captures the light pulses, which are then processed to actual data. Some common
applications of infrared technology are listed below.
1. Car locking systems
2. Computers Mouse, Keyboards, Floppy disk drives, Printers
3. Navigation systems
4. Telephones
5. TVs, VCRs, CD players, stereos

Infrared technology offers several important advantages as a form of wireless communication.

Advantages and disadvantages of IR are IR Advantages:
• It requires low power so it is suitable for laptops, telephones, PDA etc.
• IR circuit cost is very low for coding/decoding of data.
• Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be incorporated into
the integrated circuit of a product
• Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't leaked or spilled
to nearby devices as it's transmitted
• Portable
• Few international regulatory constraints: IrDA (Infrared Data Association) functional
devices will ideally be usable by international travelers, no matter where they may be
• High noise immunity: not as likely to have interference from signals from other devices
IR Disadvantages:
• Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned (i.e. able to see
each other) to communicate
• Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc. can block transmission
• Short range: performance drops off with longer distances
• Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can affect transmission
• Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical wired transmission
Radio Frequency
RF signal is a high frequency alternating current (AC) signal which is composed of
electromagnetic energy. Radio waves are in a form of electromagnetic radiation with identified
pg. 22
 MOBILE COMPUTING

radio frequencies that ranges from 3Hz to 300 GHz. It is used for transmission of data over
wireless communication.
Application
1. Wi-Fi network
2. Bluetooth Network
3. GSM technology RF Advantages:
1. Not line of sight
2. Not blocked by common materials: can penetrate most solids and pass-through
walls
3. Longer range
4. Not light sensitive
5. Not as sensitive to weather/environmental conditions RF Disadvantages:
1. Interference: communication devices using similar frequencies - wireless phones,
scanners, wrist radios and personal locators can interfere with transmission
2. Lack of security: easier to "eavesdrop" on transmissions since signals are spread out in
space rather than confined to a wire
3. Higher cost than infrared
4. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licenses required for some products
5. Lower speed: data rate transmission is lower than wired and infrared transmission
Wireless Network Architecture Logical
Logical architecture defines the network protocol or rules by which two devises can
communicate. The most popular logical architecture is OSI model. The wireless network deals
with only Network Layer, Data-link Layer and Physical Layer of OSI model. This is known as
Wireless Network Architecture Logical.
Types of WLAN
There are basically two types of WLAN
1. Ad-Hoc Network Mode: It is type of network that connects without using wired network
and access point. They can connect each other directly using wireless media for transmission
of data with each other. In this type of network all the users can be act as a server also act
as a client. This is also known as P2P network. It also known as IBSS - Independent Basic
Service Set.
2. Infrastructure Network Mode: Infrastructure mode wireless networking joins a wireless
network to a wired network.
Setting up an infrastructure mode network it requires at least one wireless access point (AP).
The AP and all the local wireless clients must be configured to use the same network name
i.e., SSID (Service Set Identifier). The AP is connected to the wired network to allow
wireless clients access. Additional APs can be joined to this network to increase reach of
the infrastructure and support more wireless clients.
In infrastructure mode, wireless devices can communicate with each other or can
communicate with a wired network. When one AP is connected to wired network and a set

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

of wireless stations is known as a Basic Service Set (BSS). A set of two or more BSSs that form
a single sub network is known as Extended Service Set (ESS).
AP: Access points act as a central transmitter and receiver of wireless radio signals.
IEEE 802.11
The 802.11 specification as a standard for wireless LANS was approved by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in the year 1997.
The 802.11 standards focus on the bottom two levels the OSI model, the physical layer and Data
link layer.
Any type of LAN application as well as network operating system and protocol including TCP/IP
and Novell NetWare will run on an 802.11 WLAN.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
An 802.11 LAN is based on a cellular
architecture where the system is
subdivided into cells. Each cell (called Basic
Service Set) is controlled by a Base Station
called Access Point or, in short, AP.
The whole interconnected Wireless LAN,
including the different cells, their
respective Access Points and the
Distribution System, is known as Extended
Service Set (ESS).
The various component of IEEE802.11 architecture are: -

1: - BSS: - It stands for basic service set. It is a type of service that allows communication with
one another. When all of the stations in the BSS are mobile station and there is no connection
to a wired network than the BSS is called Independent BSS (IBSS).

IBSS is a temporary network with a small number of mobile devices. When a BSS includes an
access point the BSS is called IBSS. In IBSS data can be transmitted through access point only,
that means a sender can send the data to access point and the access point sends the data to
the receiver. So, it consumes twice the bandwidth of the network.

2: - ESS: - It is known as Extended Service Set. It is a set of infrastructure BSS (IBSS) where all the
APs communicate among themselves to forward traffic from one BSS to another BSS and it
allows the movement of mobile devices from 1 BSS to another BSS.

3: - DS: - It stands for Distribution System. It is the mechanism by which one AP communicates
with another to exchange data packets for mobile station of their own BSS. It also forwards
frames to mobile station from 1 BSS to another and exchange data packets with wired networks.
802.11 problems: -
Today 802.11 is rapidly growing protocol for WLAN and Wi-Fi. It faces number of technical
challenges. A major challenge is the range or coverage area of the protocol as well as
performance of the network and bandwidth of the signal. Other major challenges are how to
improve data speed, enhance security and improve quality of service.

The various standards of IEEE802.11 are:

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

1. IEEE802.11- It is applicable for WLAN and it provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission with 2.4
Gaz bandwidth using either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) OR direct sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS).

▪ Frequency- 2.4Ghz
▪ Speed -1 to 2 Mbps
▪ Topology- Ad-hoc / infrastructure
▪ Transmission range-20 feet (indoor)
▪ Access method- CSMA/CA

2. 802.11a- It is an extension of 802.11 that applies in WLAN and it provides up to 54 Mbps

in the 5 Gaz band. It is incompatible with 802.11b and 802.11g wireless standard.

▪ Frequency / medium- 5 GHz/RF

▪ Speed- up to 54 Mbps
▪ Topology – Ad-hoc / infrastructure ▪ Transmission range-25 to 75(indoor) ▪ Signals can
be affected due to obstacles.
▪ Access method: - CSMA/CA

3. 802.11b- It provides for a maximum transmission speed of 11 Mbps. However, devices

are designed to be backward compatible with previous standards that provides for the speed of
1 2 and 5 Mbps. It uses 2.4 Gaz RF and is compatible with 802.11g.

▪ Frequency/medium- 2.4Ghz/RF
▪ Speed- up to 11 Mbps
▪ Topology – Ad-hoc / infrastructure
▪ Transmission range- up to 150 feet(indoor)
▪ Access method: - CSMA/CA

4. 802.11 g - It is a popular wireless standard today. It offers wireless transmission over

distance of 150 feet and speed up to 54mbps. It operates 2.4 GHz range and it is compatible
with 802.11b.

▪ Frequency/medium-52.2Ghz/RF
▪ Speed- up to 54 Mbps
▪ Topology – Ad-hoc / infrastructure
▪ Transmission range- up to 150 feet(indoor)
▪ Access method: - CSMA/CA

5. 802.11 n: - It is the new standard of wireless network for the data transmission over
wireless network. It can send data both in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency range. It uses MIMO
(multiple input multiple output) technology for data transmission. The speed of the standard
assumed 600 Mbps but really it transmits the data in 100 Mbps

▪ Frequency/medium- 2.4Ghz ,5Ghz/RF

▪ Speed- up to 600 Mbps
▪ Topology – Ad-hoc / infrastructure
▪ Transmission rrange-175+feet (indoor)
▪ Access method: - CSMA/CA

MAC Layer:
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 MOBILE COMPUTING

▪ It stands for Medium Access Control. It is sub layer of Data link Layer of OSI model. This
method defines how can use the network medium when multiple users are trying to
access the medium simultaneously.

▪ It establishes reliable Point-to-point connection between different devices over wireless

medium.

▪ It uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) technology while

transmitting data over wireless network.

MAC layer is responsible for following functions.

1- Reliable data delivery

2- Proper control of stared wireless media 3- Protect the data that
it delivers.
The 802.11 family uses a MAC layer known as CSMA/CA. In CSMA/CA a wireless node that wants
to transmit data performs the following sequence.

1- First it listens or sense the desired carrier or channel.

2- If the channel is free then it senses a packet.
3- If the channel is busy then the transmitting node waits until the transmission channel is
free.
4- When the channel is free it transmits the data packets over the transmission channel.
5- After receiving a packet then the receiver sends acknowledgement packet to the sender
that the packet is received with error free. If the receiver receives any error or bad
packet then it will not send any acknowledgment to the sender.
Security: -
In a wireless transmission security thread is a major issue now a days. The security services
offered by 802.11 are: -
1. Authentication: - The IEEE802.11 standard defines two types of authentications. One is
open system authentication and the other is stored key authentication. The stored key
authentication is based on cryptography.

The open system authentication techniques accept any mobile station without verifying
the identity of the station. The authentication process is always one way that means
only mobile station is authenticated.

2. Confidentiality: - The 802.11 standard supports privacy with cryptographic techniques

for the wireless network. It is one of the goal or targets of WEP (wired equivalent
privacy). It was developed to provide privacy achieved by wired network. The main aim
was to prevent information /data loss. It only allows authorized users for data
transmission over wireless network

3. Integrity: - The IEEE802.11 specification provides data integrity for message

transmission between wireless clients and access point. The security service is designed
to reject any message that has been changed in the middle of transmission process. This
technique uses a single and encrypted cyclic redundancy check (CRC). It ensures that the

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

message is not modified in transmissions between the wireless client and the access
point.

4. Synchronization: - It is the process of the station in a basic service set (BSS) so that
reliable communication can be possible between mobile devices. Mobile nodes need to
maintain synchronization. The MAC layer provides the synchronization mechanism to
physi6layer which makes use of frequency hopping or other time-based mechanisms for
data transmission. In wireless network the access point transmits periodic frames called
Beacon. Beacon contains the access point’s clock at the movement of transmission. This
is the time when physical transmission happens. The receiving station check the value
of the clock when the signal is received and correct to keep synchronized with the clock
of access point. There are two types of synchronization: -

• Timer synchronization in IBSS (independent BSS): - In IBSS the timer

synchronization mechanism is completely distributed among the mobile station
of BSS.
• Timer synchronization in IBSS (infrastructure BSS): - In infrastructure BSS the
AP is responsible for transmitting a beacon frame periodically.

BEACON: It contains all the information about the network. Beacon frames are transmitted
periodically to announce the presence of a wireless LAN. Beacon frames are transmitted by the
Access Point (AP) in an infrastructure Basic service set (BSS). In IBSS network beacon generation
is distributed among the stations.

Power Management
In WLAN the nodes or mobile devices are using battery power for transmitting data or
connecting to an AP. These battery powers are very limited. So, this battery power must be
saved. In power saving mode devices will go into sleep mode without losing information. The AP
maintains all the records of connecting devices and it also buffers the packets of the users during
sleep mode. When the user wakeup, the AP will provide the same data to the user. These are of
following types:

• Independent BSS: It is fully distributed process managed by the individual user.

• Infrastructure BSS: In this technique the power management process is centralized in

the AP. The AP takes the data buffering burden hand handover when the user weak up.

Roaming

It is the process of moving a wireless device from one network zone to other network zone
without disconnecting the network connection.

In WLAN all Aps must contain a SSID (SERVICE SET IDENTIFIER) name which is the unique
name in the entire WLAN. All clients connected to Aps with their SSID name when the client
move from one network zone to other network zone. The SSID name change automatically
without taking the user’s permission. To avoid the roaming facility all the Aps must be in a same
network that means all the Aps have same services of IP address.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

In client side, all the clients must have given permission to access all the Aps in the network it
means all the client machines are configured with passwords to access a particular AP. When
the client moves from one area to other area it gets the AP signal and continues to transmit
data. There is no need to configure the client again.

WLAN standards
Several standards for WLAN hardware exist:

WLAN Pros Cons

standard

802.11a • Faster data transfer rates (up to • Short range (60-100 feet)
54Mbps) • Less able to penetrate physical
• Supports more simultaneous barriers
connections
• Less risk of interference

802.11b • Better at penetrating physical • Slower data transfer rates (up to

barriers 11Mbps)
• Longest range (70-150 feet) • Doesn't support as many
• Hardware is usually less simultaneous connections
expensive • More risk of interference

802.11g • Faster data transfer rates (up to • More risk of interference

54Mbps)
• Better range than 802.11b
(65120 feet)

802.11n The 802.11n standard is recently certified by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (0p;), as compared to the previous three standards.
Though specifications may change, it is expected to allow data transfer
rates up to 600Mbps, and may offer larger ranges.

Bluetooth Overview
It is a set of standards for cable free connectivity between wireless devices like mobile phone,
laptop, handhold devices etc. The standard is developed by IBM, Intel, Ericsson, Nokia, and
Toshiba. It uses rang radio links in 2.4 GHz ISM band (Instrumentation scientific and medical
band) which free band.
The Bluetooth technology is inbuilt to the devices and replaces the cable network between
laptop to laptop or mobile to laptop. It also replaces the traditional serial cable of mouse and
keyboard. Now both the mouse and keyboard can be connected to a computer with the help of
Bluetooth.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

Other than the cable replacement it also creates Ad-hoc network between Bluetooth enabled
devices and transmits data within a short distance of maximum 20 meters.

Bluetooth does not require a point-to-point connection. It is a point to multi point connection.

No line of signal is required in the technology for data transmission. It consumes very low power
for data transmission. So, it is much popular in a small and Ad-hoc network

Bluetooth Communication Type

Bluetooth device can connect one or more devices in several different ways. The Bluetooth
connections are:

Pico net (Point-to-multipoint connection):

• In Bluetooth connection one device will act as master and the other will act as slave. This
type of Ad-hoc network is called Piconet.
• In Piconet connection the master may connect one or more slaves. In this case the
connection is called point to multipoint connection. The bandwidth of the channel shared
among the connected slaves.

Scatter net

• Multiple Piconets with overlapping coverage areas can be connected to form a scatternet.
• Each piconet can only have a single master; however, slaves can participate in different
Piconets on a time-division multiplex basis.
• A master in one piconet can be a slave in another.
• Each piconet is identified by a different hopping frequency sequence. All users participating
on the same piconet are synchronized to this hopping sequence.

Link Type in Bluetooth

It uses two types of links for data transmission.

• Synchronous Connection-Oriented (SCO): It is a Point-to-Point link between a master and
single slave in the Piconet. The master maintains the SCO link. The link is reserved for the
slave. So, this link is considered as Circuit-Switched Network.

• Asynchronous Connection less (ACL): It is the point-to multi point link between the master
and all the slaves in piconet. This link carries asynchronous data. It provides a packet
switched link between master and all active slaves.

Packet Format
The data in a piconet transmitted in a packet format. The general packet format consists of
Access Code, Header, and Payload.

The Access Code and Header are fixed size of 72 bits and 54 bits respectively. The Payload can
range from 0 to 2745 bits.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

IMAGE OF PICONET IMAGE OF SCATTERNET

pg. 30
 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT- 6
INTRODUCTION
The idea of “Anywhere, Anytime, Anything and Anyone (4As) network is known as UBIQUITOUS
network. The meaning of UBIQUITOUS is “Being Everywhere at any time”. The main objectives
of UBIQUITOUS networking are

1. Free from networking constraints like capacity, location and different

link ups
2. Free from the constraints of terminal limitations 3. Free from
constraints of limited service
4. Free from constraints of network risk.

SCENARIO OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION

The mobile industry has tremendous growth in the past few years in terms of subscribers.
Ultimately the usage of signals also increased. So, the average revenue per user (APRU) is
shrinking. So, it is a very big challenge for all the mobile companies to maintain the business
profitable. The industry is addressing this challenge in two ways. These are:

• By adding new services or new subscribers to increase the profit.

• By reducing the operating expenses.

There are two primary mobile systems in the industry. These are:
1. Global system for mobile communication (GSM)
2. Code division multiple access (CDM)

Mobile Communication Generation:

The various signal generations are as follows.

1G Network: 1G is the first-generation signal of wireless technology which was first introduced
in 1980s and completed in early 1990s. Its Speed was up to 2.4kbps, allowed the voice calls in 1
country. 1G wireless networks used analog radio signals. 1G network were conceived and
designed purely for voice calls with almost no consideration of data services

2G Network: The second generation (2G) technology was launched in the year 1991 in Finland.
It is based on the technology known as global system for mobile communication (GSM).

This technology enabled various networks to provide services like text messages, and picture
messages. The main function of 2G technology is the transmission of information via voice
signals. In this technology all text messages are digitally encrypted. So only the intended receiver
will receive the message. 2G signal consumes less battery power, so it helps in saving the battery
of mobiles. The downloading and uploading speeds available in 2G technologies are up to 236
Kbps.

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2G technologies uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) which divides signal into different
time slots or CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) which allocates a special code to each user
so as to communicate over a multiplex physical channel.
3G Network
3G is a wireless signal used for mobile phones and telecommunication equipment which are
compatible with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) standards
developed by International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It is designed for multimedia
communication. It provides services like higher data transfer rates. One of its key visions of 3G
is to provide continues global roaming, enabling users to move across borders while using the
same number and handset. The data transfer rate for 3G networks is between 128 and 144 kbps
(kilobits per second) for devices that are moving fast and 384 kbps for slow ones (like for
pedestrians). While in 3G technology the downloading and uploading speeds are up to 21 Mbps
and 5.7 Mbps respectively.

3G has the following features

• Several times higher data speed;
• Enhanced audio and video streaming;
• Video-conferencing support;
• Web and WAP browsing at higher speeds;
• IPTV (TV through the Internet) support.

Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)

It is a 3G mobile communication system that provides a range of broadband services to the
wireless and mobile communication. It provides low-cost mobile communication at the data rate
of up to 2Mbps. It is designed to deliver pictures, graphics, video communications and other
multimedia information as well as voice and data to the mobile subscribers. The objectives of
UMTS are

1. High transmission rates using circuit- switched and packet-switched technology

2. High spectrum efficiency and overall cost improvement
3. Common radio interfaces for multiple environment
4. Providing services in various environments like Indoor, Outdoor, Suburban, Urban, and
Rural, Vehicular etc.

UMTS services

1. Internet access: massaging, video and music download, voice and video over IP,
Mcommerce
2. Customized information: information about (photo, video and music), travel assistance,
distance education, voice portal service
3. Multimedia messaging: Image, video and music
4. Location based service: yellow pages, mobile commerce, navigation service, trading etc.

Features

• UMTS is a component of IMT-2000 standard of the International Telecommunications

Union (ITU), developed by 3GPP.

• It uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) air interface.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

• It provides transmission of text, digitized voice, video and multimedia.

• It provides high bandwidth to mobile operators.

• It gives a high data rate of 2Mbps. For High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
handsets, the data-rate is as high as 7.2 Mbps in the downlink connection.

• It is also known as Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).

• It encompasses specifications for the entire mobile network system −

o Radio access network specified by UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access

Network) o Core network specified by MAP (Mobile Application Part)

o Authentication of the users by SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) cards

UMTS architecture

The UMTS network

architecture can be
divided into three main
elements:
1. UE or the mobile
terminal.

2. UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access
Network (UTRAN):
UTRAN provides
and manages the
air interface
for the
overall UMTS network which consists of two main components:

• Radio Network Controller (RNC): This element of the radio network subsystem
controls the Node B which are connected to it. The RNC undertakes the radio
resource management and some of the mobility management functions. It is also
the point at which the data encryption/decryption is performed to protect the user
data privacy.

• Node B: Node B is the term used in UMTS to denote the base station transceiver. It
contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the UEs within the cell.
In order to facilitate effective HO between Node s under the control of different
RNCs, the RNC communicates not only with the CN but also with neighboring RNCs.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

3. Core network: The CN provides central processing and management for the system as
well as interface to external networks, including [circuit-switched] public phone network
and other cellular networks. The UMTS CN may be divided into two different areas:

• Circuit-switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network
entities and carry data in a circuit-switched manner; that is, a dedicated channel for the
duration of the call.

• Packet-switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data.
This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is
carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.
Some network elements in UMTS CN, particularly those that are associated with registration,
are shared by both circuit-switched and packet-switched domains and operate in the same way
as they did with GSM.

• MSC: This entity is essentially the same as that in the GSM network and manages the
circuit-switched call flows.

• Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is the interface to the external networks.

The packet-switched elements of the UMTS CN architecture include the following network
entities:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): This entity was first developed when GPRS was introduced,
and its use has been carried over to the UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provides a
number of functions within the UMTS network architecture including the following:
• Mobility management: when a UE attaches to the packet-switched domain of the UMTS
CN, SGSN generates mobility management information based on the mobile’s current
location.

• Session management: SGSN manages the data sessions providing the required QoS and
also managing what are referred to as the Packet Data Protocol (PDP) contexts; that is,
data bearers.

• Interaction with other network elements: SGSN is able to manage its elements within
the network only by communicating with other areas of the network; for example, MSC
and other circuit-switched areas.

• Billing: SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the flow of user
data across the GPRS network. Call detail records are generated by SGSN before being
transferred to the charging entities.

• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): GGSN is the central element within the UMTS
packet-switched network. It handles interworking between the UMTS packetswitched
network and external packet-switched networks and can be considered as a

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sophisticated router. In terms of operation, when GGSN receives data addressed to a

specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the data to the SGSN
serving that particular UE.

UMTS CHANNELS
The data carried by the UMTS transmission is organized into frames, slots and channels. In this
way all the data load as well as the control of data can be transmitted in an efficient manner.
The channels are categorized into three levels. These are:
1. Logical
2. Transport
3. Physical
The logical channel defines the way in which the data will be transmitted. The transport channel
along with the logical channel again defines the way in which the data is transmitted. The
physical channel carries the data load and controls the physical characteristics of the signal.

UMTS SPECIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT

To maintain UMTS or WCDMA it is necessary to prepare and maintain a large number of

documents and specifications. So, these documentation and specifications are now managed by
a group known as 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project).

The 3GPP is responsible to produce globally applicable technical specifications and technical
reports for 3rd generation mobile telecommunication system.
Parameters 1G 2G 3G

Name 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation

Mobile Network Mobile Network Mobile Network

Introduced in year 1980s 1993 2001

Location of first USA Finland Japan

commercialization

Technology AMPS (Advanced IS-95, GSM IMT2000, WCDMA

Mobile Phone
System), NMT, TACS

Multiple FDMA TDMA, CDMA CDMA

Address/Access
system

Switching type Circuit switching Circuit switching for Packet switching

Voice and Packet except for Air
switching for Data Interface

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Speed (data rates) 2.4 Kbps to 14.4 kbps 14.4 Kbps 3.1 Mbps

Special First wireless Digital version of 1G Digital broadband,

Characteristic communication technology speed increments

Features Voice only Multiple users on Multimedia

single channel features, Video Call

Supports Voice only Voice and Data Voice and Data

Internet service No Internet Narrowband Broadband

Bandwidth Analog 25 MHz 25 MHz

Operating 800 MHz GSM: 900MHZ, 2100 MHz

frequencies 1800MHz CDMA:
800MHz

Band (Frequency) Narrow band Narrow band Wide band

type

Carrier frequency 30 KHZ 200 KHz 5 MHz

Advantage Simpler (less Multimedia features High security,

complex) network (SMS, MMS), Internet international
elements access and SIM roaming
introduced

Disadvantages Limited capacity, not Low network range, High power

secure, poor battery slow data rates consumption, Low
life, large phone size, network coverage,
background High cost of
interference spectrum license

Applications Voice Calls Voice calls, short Video conferencing,

messages, browsing mobile TV, GPS
(partial)

4G Signal

4G is a collection of fourth generation cellular data technologies. It succeeds 3G and is also called
"IMT-Advanced," or "International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced." 4G was made
available as early as 2005 in South Korea under the name WiMAX and was rolled out in several
countries.

All 4G standards must conform to a set of specifications created by the International

Telecommunications Union. For example, all 4G technologies are required to provide peak data
transfer rates of at least 100 Mbps. While actual download and upload speeds may vary based

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on signal strength and wireless interference, 4G data transfer rates can actually surpass those
of cable modem and DSL connections.

Like 3G, there is no single 4G standard. Instead, different cellular providers use different
technologies that conform to the 4G requirements. For example, WiMAX is a popular 4G
technology used in Europe also in America, while LTE (Long Term Evolution) is more popular in
Asian countries.
The benefits of 4G

The benefits of 4G fall firmly into three categories. These are:

• improved download/upload speeds

• reduced latency
• crystal clear voice calls

Standard 4G (or 4G LTE) is around five to seven times faster than 3G, offering theoretical speeds
of up to around 150Mbps.

LTE

LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and is a 4G (read: 4th generation) wireless broadband
standard. It is the fastest wireless network for smartphones and mobile devices. LTE offers
higher bandwidth, meaning greater connection speeds, and better underlying technology for
voice calls (VoIP) and multimedia streaming.

5G Signal

5G is the 5th generation mobile network. It is a new global wireless standard after 1G, 2G, 3G,
and 4G networks. 5G enables a new kind of network that is designed to connect virtually
everyone and everything together including machines, objects, and devices.

5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultralow latency,
more reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more uniform user
experience to more users. Higher performance and improved efficiency empower new user
experiences and connects new industries.

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UNIT-7
Mobile IP
Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard communications protocol which
is designed to allow mobile devices to move from one network to another while maintaining
their permanent IP address. Mobile IP is a mechanism for forwarding Internet traffic to mobile
devices (known as mobile nodes) when they are connecting through other than their home
network. In IP network, routing is based on fixed IP address, similar to a postal letter is delivered
to the fixed address on the envelope. A device in a network is reachable through normal IP
routing by the IP address it is assigned on the network.

The problem occurs when a device is moving away from its home network and it is no longer
able to use its normal IP address. This results in the active sessions of the device being
terminated. So, to avoid this problem the Mobile IP concept is developed to keep the same IP
address while traveling to a different network.

Mobile IP entities

Mobile network (MN): it is a node that can change the point of connection from one network
to another network without changing its IP.

Home Agent (HA): Basically, it is a router that registers the home address of nodes which are
away from the home network.

Foreign Agent (FA): it is the device that handles current foreign network for mobile node. These
are basically routers.

Care-of –Address (COA): it is an address used by mobile network when it attached to a foreign
link. A mobile node assigned a multiple COA.

Correspondent Node (CN): it is the next node that the mobile network can communicate for
packet transmission.

Home address (HA): it is an address that is assigned to a mobile node. Basically it is the IP address
of the mobile device.

Home link (HL): it is the link that is assigned to a mobile network through which the mobile
networks will get the IP address.

Foreign link (FL): it is a link that is not directly connected the mobile network’s home link.

Mobility agent
In Mobile IP the mobility agent is a router that facilitates Internet traffic forwarding for a mobile
node when its location is changed to somewhere other than its home network. There are two
different types of mobility agent:

1. Home agent: It is a router on the mobile node's home network that maintains
information about the mobile node's current location, as identified in its care-of address.
2. Foreign agent: It can assign an IP address to a mobile device when the mobile device is
away from its home network. This may be a static IP address of the foreign agent or a co-located
careof address, which is a temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node.

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Working of Mobile IP

1. In IP there are some host addresses and some network address.

2. The network part of the IP address communicates with router and the host part is with
the end user.

3. The TCP contains four entities. These are IP address and port number of both sender
and receiver.

4. To continue the network without losing the connection we have to ensure that these
entities should be remaining constant.

5. The port cannot be changed because it is application based.

6. But the IP will change from network to network. This causes disconnection of live
streaming of audio and video.

7. So, to fix this problem the mobile IP concept is developed.

8. The mobile IP allows the mobile device with two IP addresses these two IP addresses
are home address and care of address.

9. The home address is the permanent IP address of a mobile device and COA is the
temporary IP address of a mobile device. The COA will change from network to network.

Mobile IP Operation

The Mobile IP process has three main phases.

1. Agent Discovery or Discovering Care-of-Address: A Mobile Node discovers its Foreign

and Home Agents during agent discovery. During this phase, the Home Agent and
Foreign Agent advertise their services on the network by using the Router Discovery
Protocol (IRDP). The Mobile Node listens to these advertisements to determine if it is
connected to its home network or foreign network. If a Mobile Node determines that it
is connected to a foreign network, it acquires a care-of address.

2. Registration of Care-of-Address process: The Mobile Node registers its current location
with the Foreign Agent and Home Agent during registration process. The Mobile Node
uses this information along with the information that it got from the Foreign Agent to
form a Mobile IP registration request.

3. Mobile IP Tunneling: It is a tunnel set up by the Home Agent to the care-of address
(current location of the Mobile Node on the foreign network) to route packets to the
Mobile Node while in roaming. The Mobile Node sends packets using its home IP
address, effectively maintaining the appearance that it is always on its home network.
Even while the Mobile Node is roaming on foreign networks, its movements are
transparent to correspondent nodes. Tunneling has two primary functions:

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encapsulation of the data packet to reach the tunnel endpoint, and DE capsulation when
the packet is delivered at that endpoint.

Mobile IP V6

1. It has large address scope which is the global address for each device.

2. It is scalable as it runs over multiple networks like WLAN, Ethernet and 3G.

3. It has auto configuration facility that means it is plug and play.

4. It has fixed header format that means packet header cannot be extended it is fixed while
moving in the network.

5. It very much efficient for routing of real time application like live video and audio
streaming.

Mobile IP V6 Address Type

The various address type of IPV-6 is as follows:

1. Unicast: It is a communication between a single host and a single receiver. It defines a

single interface. A packet sent to a unicast address is delivered to the specific computer.

2. Multi cast: It is the communication between a single host and multiple receivers. These
addresses are used to define a set of interfaces which belongs to different nodes. In this
process when packet is sent to a multicast address the protocol delivers the packet to
all interfaces.

3. Any cast: it is a communication between a single sender and a list of address. These
addresses are assigned to more than one interface. Packet can be delivered to just one
of the member interfaces. It cannot be identified easily.

Mobile IP V6 Address Scope

1. Link – local: it is used on single link. Packets cannot be forwarded to another link. It can
be transmitted between users in the same link.

2. Site-local: it is used for a single site. Packets cannot be forwarded to another site.

3. Global: it is a global unique address. Packets having global address can be forwarded to
any part of the globe.

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UNIT- 8
WWW architecture for Mobile computing
The WWW architecture provides a very flexible
and powerful programming
model.
Applications and contents are presented in
standard data formats and are browsed by
applications known as web browser.

Web browser is a networked application that

sends request for named data project to a
network server and the network server
responds with the data encoded using the
standard formats.

The various mechanisms in WWW standards are:

• Standard naming model: All servers and contents on the WWW are named with an
internet standard known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
• Content typing: All contents on the WWW are given a specific type to allow web
browsers for processing of the content.
• Standard content formats: All web browsers support a set of standard content formats
like HTML, scripting languages like JAVA and VB script.
• Standard protocols: All the browsers use common protocols like HTTP and TCP/IP
protocol suit to connect a web server.

WAP
• WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol is a communication protocol suite
specifically developed for mobile devices like mobile phones, personal digital assistants
(PDAs) and other hand-held devices.

• WAP is a bridge between the mobile device and the Internet. The WAP was developed
by the WAP Forum which is a group of Device manufacturer, Service provider, Content
provider, and Application developer.

• The original participants for developing WAP were Motorola, Nokia, Ericsson and
Phone.com. Now there are more than 200 members in WAP Forum.

The WAP Architecture

There are three major parts of a
WAP-enabled system:
• WAP Device
• WAP Gateway
• HTTP Web Server

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The WAP Device

WAP device (Cellular phones) is part of wireless network. WAP Device sends the WAP request
to the WAP Gateway, which in turn translates WAP requests to WWW requests, so that the WAP
client is able to submit requests to the Web server. After receiving the response from the HTTP
Web Server, WAP Gateway translates Web responses into WAP understandable responses and
sends it to the WAP Device.
WAP Gateway
WAP gateway acts as mediator between Cellular device and HTTP or HTTPS web server. WAP
gateway route requests from the client (Cellular Phones) to an HTTP (or Web) server. The WAP
gateway can be located either in a telecom network or in a computer network (ISP).
The HTTP Web Server
It receives the request from WAP Gateway and process the request than finally sends the output
to the WAP Gateway than the gateway sends this information to the WAP device using its
wireless network.
Features of WAP
WAP has many key features that are representative of what the WAP Forum claims the protocol
to be:
• Interoperability: It is an open license and free standard. This will allow vendors to use it
with their wireless products.

• Scalability: It supports many transport layer protocols with a wide range of hand held
devices regardless of what wireless device is being used.

• Extensibility: It can accommodate any kind of new wireless devices that are developed
and produced by various vendors.

• Flexibility: It is very flexible and is able to work well with many wireless applications.
• Reusability: It extends and adapts to existing Internet standards so that when the
standard is further developed it can able to accept the newer standard.

WAP protocol
WAP is designed in a layered fashion so that it can be extensible, flexible, and scalable. As a
result, the WAP protocol stack is divided into five layers.

• Application Layer: Wireless Application Environment (WAE). This layer is responsible

for content development because it contains device specifications, and the
programming languages, like WML and WML Script.
• Session Layer: Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). WSP has been designed by the WAP
Forum to provide fast connection, suspension and reconnection.
• Transaction Layer: Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). The WTP runs on the top of a
datagram service like User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and it is the part of the standard
protocol suite of TCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified protocol suitable for low
bandwidth wireless stations.

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• Security Layer: Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). WTLS provides security
features that are based upon the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol standard. It
includes data integrity checks, privacy and authentication services.
• Transport Layer: Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP). The WDP allows WAP to be
bearer-independent by adapting the transport layer of the underlying bearer. The WDP
presents a consistent data format to the higher layers of the WAP protocol stack.

WAP Applications
Specific areas of applications that are being expanded to include the support of WAP are in the
following:
• Person to Person Messaging
• Voice and Fax Mail Notifications
• Unified Messaging
• Internet Email
• Prepayment
• Ringtones
• Mobile Commerce
• Mobile Banking
• Chat
• Information Services

Advantages of WAP
• It is a common standard for linking mobile devices to Internet
• Best standard for web browsing in mobile devices
• Provides a secure wireless connection
• Provides a way to implement new functionality
• Adapts new standards for the industry
• Disadvantages of WAP
• It has less Bandwidth
• Less Connection Stability
• Small downloadable unit size
• Very few handsets support WAP
• WAP Standard is incomplete

WAP PUSH ARCHITECTURE:

The WAP Push architecture allows information to be sent to a client device without user request.
It is based on client-server model. But there is no request generated by the client. The server
transmits its content before the client’s request. Push technology is always initiated by the
server only. The Push technology is helpful to implement alerts and notifications.

The Push content is originated in a server that needs to be delivered to a mobile phone. The
Push initiator (PI) contacts The Push proxy gateway (PPG) from the internet side and delivers
content to the destination client. The PPG then forwards the content to the mobile network to
be delivered to destination client. The internet side PPG protocol is called Push Access Protocol.
The WAP side protocol is called over the air.

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PUSH-PULL Based Data Acquisition:

There are 3 types of browsing content can be pushed to a WAP Browser. These are service
indication (SI), service loading (SL) and cache operation (CO). Push SI provides the ability to push
content to the user and notify them about e-mail, news, commercial offers and so on.

The PUSH SL provides the ability to push some content to the WAP device without user request.
A PUSH SL contains a URL that refers to the Push content. After receiving the PUSH SL, the push
content is automatically retrieved by the WAP device and is presented to the user. PUSH CO is
responsible for storing of data in the WAP devices cache memory.

I-Mode
I-Mode, stands for Internet Mode is a micro browser technology that supports text, graphics,
audio, and video for Web access. It was introduced in February 1999.
I-Mode is one of the most successful services offering wireless web browsing and e-mail services
from mobile phones.

I-Mode provides packet-data transmission, which enables operators to charge their customers
according to the volume of data transmitted.

WML (Wireless Mark-up Language)

WML is used to design applications that are sent over wireless devices such as mobile phones.
This language takes care of the small screen and the low bandwidth of transmission. WML is an
application of XML, which is defined in a document-type definition.

WML pages are called decks. They are constructed as a set of cards, related to each other with
links. When a WML page is accessed from a mobile phone, all the cards in the page are
downloaded from the WAP server to mobile phone.

WML commands and syntaxes are used to show contents, commands to declare variables,
format text, and show images on the mobile phone

• WML stands for Wireless Mark-up Language

• WML is based on HDML (Handheld Device Mark-up Language) and is modified so
that it can be compared with HTML.
• WML takes care of the small screen and the low bandwidth of transmission.
• WML is the mark-up language defined in the WAP specification.
• WAP sites are written in WML, while web sites are written in HTML.
• WML is very similar to HTML. Both of them use tags and are written in plain text
format.
• WML files have the extension ".wml".
• WML supports client-side scripting. The scripting language supported is called WML
Script.
WML Decks and Cards:
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In HTML when we click “HYPER LINK” it will open another page but in case of WML this page is
known as CARD. A WML file can contain multiple cards and the complete file is called deck.

When a WML page is accessed from a mobile phone, all the cards in the page are downloaded
from the WAP server. So, if the user goes to another card of the same deck, the mobile browser
does not have to send any requests to the server since the file that contains the deck is already
stored in the wireless device.

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 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT -9
GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used
for transmitting mobile voice and data services. GSM is a globally accepted standard for digital
cellular communications. GSM uses narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) for
providing voice and text-based services over mobile phone networks. GSM operates on the
mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts of the world. GSM was
developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world. GSM features
• Improved spectrum efficiency
• International roaming
• Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
• High-quality speech
• Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and another
telephonic network.
GSM – Architecture
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functional units are:

Mobile Station
The mobile station (MS) consists of
• The mobile equipment (ME): It is a portable device that can be used for voice
communication. It is produced by many different manufacturers. It must be obtained
approval from the standardization body. It is uniquely identified by an IMEI
(International Mobile Equipment Identity).

• The Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): It is an intelligent card that holds service
subscription information, identity, and personal information. The SIM contains a
microprocessor, memory and software to hold and process information like a phone
number, billing identification information and a small amount of user specific data

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Base Station Subsystem

In the GSM network, the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is the part of the network taking care of
radio frequency resources, radio channel allocation and quality of the connection. It is composed
of two parts.
1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS is responsible for transmitting and receiving
radio signals using a transceiver and it also minimizing the transmission problems.

2. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC is the central network component of the BSS and
it controls the radio network. It has several important tasks like
• Connection establishment between the MS and the NSS
• Mobility management
• Statistical raw data collection
Network Switching Subsystems (NSS)
It is the main part of the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC), which performs the switching of calls
between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as it manages the mobile
services such as authentication.
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile services Switching Canter
(MSC).
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC performs the switching of calls between the mobile
and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as
registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming
subscriber. The other components that are connected to MSC are:
• Home Location Register (HLR): It is a database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is the most important database, as it stores permanent data
about subscribers, SIM registration, user profile, location information, and activity
status.

• Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a database that contains temporary
information about subscribers which is needed by the MSC in order to provide services
to visiting subscribers.
The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new
MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC and will request data about the mobile station
from the HLR.
• Authentication Center (AUC): The authentication center (AuC) stores and processes
information that is required to validate the identity ("authenticate") of a wireless
telephone before the service is provided.

• Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is a database that contains the identity of

telecommunications devices and the status of these devices in the network. The EIR is
mainly used to identify wireless telephones.

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Call Setup in GSM

When a mobile subscriber makes a call to a PSTN telephone subscriber, the following sequence
of events takes place:
• The MSC/VLR receives the message of a call request.
• The MSC/VLR checks if the mobile station is authorized to access the network. If so,
the mobile station is activated. If the mobile station is not authorized, then the
service will be denied.
• MSC/VLR analyses the number and initiates a call setup with the PSTN.
• MSC/VLR asks the corresponding BSC to allocate a traffic channel (a radio channel
and a time slot).
• The BSC allocates the traffic channel and passes the information to the mobile
station.
• The called party answers the call and the conversation takes place.
GPRS NETWOEK
General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward internet
access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile Communications Internet
Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online, allows to make voice calls, and access
internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system
as it provides packet radio access. In addition, GPRS allows improved quality of data services in
terms of reliability, response time and features supported. GPRS also permits the network
operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP) based core architecture for integrated voice and
data applications that will continue to be used and expanded for 3G services.

The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute
(ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).

Key Features

Following three key features describe wireless packet data:

• The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one
click away.
• An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment;
rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
• An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G
systems EDGE and WCDMA.

GPRS Architecture
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities
that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM
network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet
data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface
resources concurrently. Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

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GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones do
not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high-
speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an
embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are backward
compatible for making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software
upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station Subsystem
(BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not
require hardware enhancements. When either voice or data traffic is originated at the
subscriber mobile, it is transported over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the
BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is
separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is
sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving GPRS
Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects

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charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration
of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on charging for
the use of the air interface.

Internal Backbone

The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR or
EIR is done using SS7.

Routing Area

GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in GSM,
except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than location
areas, less radio resources are used while broadcasting a page message.

GPRS - Network Processes

This chapter gives a brief description of the basic processes used in GPRS networks:
• Attach process - Process by which the MS (Mobile Stations) attaches (i.e., connects) to
the SGSN in a GPRS network.
• Authentication process - Process by which the SGSN authenticates the mobile
subscriber.
• PDP activation process - Process by which a user session is established between the MS
and the destination network.
• Detach process - Process by which the MS detaches (i.e., disconnects) from the SGSN in
the GPRS network.
• Network-initiated PDP request for static IP address - Process by which a call from the
packet data network reaches the MS using a static IP address.
• Network-initiated PDP request for dynamic IP address - Process by which a call from the
packet data network reaches the MS using a dynamic IP address.
GPRS Classes of Device

There are mainly 3 types of devices which can be used in GPRS technology. These are:

1. Class A: In this type the mobile station can operate simultaneous packet switch and
circuit switch services. It means that MS can work both on GSM and GPRS network at a
time. In other words, that a user can simultaneously make a voice call as well as the user
can access internet. There are very few mobile devices of this class available in the
market.
2. Class B: In this class MS can operate either one facility at a time. That means a user can
either make a call or he/she can access internet in that mobile device. User cannot avail
both the facilities at a time.
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3. Class C: In this type of class a mobile device can handle only either voice or data. The
user needs to switch on the facility manually. Example is Laptop.

GPRS technology offered some significant benefits are:

• Speed: The main benefits of GPRS technology is that it offers a much higher data transfer
rate up to 172 kbps. But in most conditions, it transferring data between 15 - 40 kbps.
• Packet switched operation: GSM technology uses circuit switched techniques for data
transmission but GPRS technology uses packet switching for data transmission. This makes
more efficient use of the available capacity, and it allows greater combination with Internet
techniques.
• Always on connectivity: A further advantage of GPRS is that it offers an "Always On"
capability. When using circuit switched techniques, charges are based on the time a circuit
is used, i.e., how long the call is. For packet switched technology charges are for the
amount of data carried as this is what uses the services provider's capacity. Accordingly,
always on connectivity is possible.
• More applications: The packet switched technology including the always on connectivity
combined with the higher data rates opens up many more possibilities for new
applications.

GPRS Application
Chat, Web Browsing, SMS/MMS, Image, E-mail
IS-95
It is known as Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) or CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) technology.
It is a second-generation (2G) digital mobile telephone standard used by CDMA.
CDMA is digital radio signal that transmits streams of bits and it permits to share the same Radio
frequencies among several users.
CDMA spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth, identifying each channel using unique digital
codes.
In CDMA, all users share the same 1,250 kHz wide carrier, but unique digital codes are used to
differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the mobile station and the base station.
IS-95 Architecture
The main components of IS-95 are as follows
• Mobile Station (MS): It is the stand-alone device i.e. the mobile phone with the user.
• Base Station (BS): it is the connection system between MS and MSC. It is divided into
BTS & BSC.
• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): It is the interface between wireless network and wired
network. It handles the traffic between wireless & wired network. It is equivalent to a
fixed telephone exchange.

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• Home Location Register (HLR): It manages and stores the permanent data about
subscribers, SIM registration, user profile, location information, and activity status.

• Data Message Handler (DMH): It is responsible for collecting billing data of the user.
• Visited Location Register (VLR): VLR is a database that contains temporary information
about subscribers which is needed by the MSC. It is linked to one or more MSCs.

• Authentication Centre (AuC): It manages the authentication process of user. It may be

located within HLR or MSC or it may be independent entity.

• Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It keeps the record of mobile device and provides to
MSC when it requires.

• Operation System (OS): It is responsible for overall management of wireless network.

• Internetworking Function (IWF): It allows MSC to communicate with other network.
• External Networks: These are other networks like PSTN or ISDN.

CDMA 2000
CDMA2000 is a hybrid 2.5G / 3G technology of mobile telecommunications that use CDMA
(code division multiple access) to send digital radio, voice, data, and signaling data between
mobile phones and cell sites.
The cdma2000 network comprises three major parts: the core network (CN), the radio access
network (RAN) and the mobile station (MS).
The core network is further decomposed in two parts, one interfacing to external networks such
as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and the other interfacing to the IP based
network such as Internet.

Components of CDMA2000:
Base Transceiver System (BTS): It is an entity that provides transmission capabilities across the
network. The BTS consists of radio devices, antenna and equipment.
Base Station Controller (BSC): It is a device that provides control and management for one or
more BTSs.
Packet Control Function (PCF): It is an entity that provides interface function between the access
network and the packet switched network.
WCDMA
• It stands for Wideband Code Division Multiple Access. It is a spread spectrum 3G CDMA
mobile telecommunication technology.

• W-CDMA can be implemented by migrating via GPRS and EDGE on the 2G network
infrastructure of the GSM standard

• W-CDMA allows transmission of signals for various services with variable data rates on
5 MHz bandwidths.

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• It provides Increased Network Capacity and reduced cost of voice and data services.
Difference between CDMA & WCDMA
• The basic difference between the CDMA and WCDMA is bandwidth; CDMA uses 1.25
MHz frequency bandwidth while WCDMA uses 5 MHz bandwidth.

• Again, CDMA is 2g telecommunication standard and provide very less data rates
compared to WCDMA which is third generation technology.

• CDMA being 2g standard provide mainly circuit switched services while WCDMA being
used in UMTS system is used in both circuit switched and packet switched networks.
Wireless Sensor Network
• It is wireless network consisting of sensors to monitor the physical or environmental
conditions like Temperature, Sound, Vibration Pressure, Pollutants at different
locations.

• It is used in many areas like Environment Monitoring, Health Care Applications, Home
automations and Traffic Control.

• A Sensor Network forms a network in ad-hoc mode. Several nodes may forward data
packets to the base stations.

• Each node in sensor network equipped with radio transceiver and battery power.

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UNIT-10
SMS

Short message service (SMS) is a globally accepted wireless service that enables the transmission
of alphanumeric messages between mobile subscribers and external systems such as electronic
mail, paging, and voice mail systems. SMS text messaging supports various languages.
Besides text, SMS messages can send ringtones, pictures, operator logos, wallpapers,
animations, etc.

SMS provides a mechanism for transmitting "short" messages to and from wireless handsets. To
provide this service it uses a short message service center (SMSC) which acts as a store and
forward system for short messages.

The SMS features confirmation of message delivery. This means that, the sender of the short
message can receive a return message back notifying them whether the message has been
delivered or not.

Architecture of SMS

The figure below shows a typical organization of network elements in a GSM network supporting
SMS.

The SMC (Short Message Centre) is the entity which does the job of store and forward of
messages to and from the mobile station.

The SME (Short Message Entity) which can be located in the fixed network or a mobile station
receives and sends short messages.

The SMS GWMS (SMS gateway MSC) is a gateway MSC that can also receive short messages.

The gateway MSC is a mobile network’s point of contact with other networks. On receiving the
short message from the short message center, GMSC verifies the current position of the mobile
station form the HLR, the home location register.

HLR is the main database in a mobile network. It holds information of the subscription profile of
the mobile and also about the routing information for the subscriber, i.e., the area (covered by
a MSC) where the mobile is currently situated. The GMSC is thus able to pass on the message to
the correct MSC.
MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) is the entity in a GSM network which does the job of switching
connections between mobile stations to other mobile stations or the fixed network.

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A VLR (Visitor Location Register) corresponds to each MSC and contains temporary
information about the mobile like mobile identification and the cell (or a group of cells) where
the mobile is currently situated.

Using information from the VLR the MSC is able to switch the information (short message) to
the corresponding BSS (Base Station System, BSC + BTSs), which transmits the short message to
the mobile.

The BSS consists of transceivers, which send and receive information over the air interface, to
and from the mobile station. This information is passed over the signaling channels so the mobile
can receive messages even if a voice or data call is going on.

SMS Features

SMS has several unique features as mentioned below. SMS messaging uses the signaling layer,
part of the communication channel, so it cannot support large amounts of data.

1. An SMS message content can be words of characters, numbers, or a combination of both

and basic pictures or icons can also be attached in it. But the total length can be up to
160 characters.

2. SMS has store and forward feature. So mobile communication is not between two users
but each message has to be routed through an intermediate referred to as SMSC.

3. When an SMS message is sent to one or more receivers, an acknowledgement is

guaranteed.

4. Since SMS uses a separate signaling path rather than a dedicated radio channel,
messages can be sent simultaneously with voice and data. So the users can send
messages during peak hours without any interruptions

5. The telephone number of the sender of the message is automatically attached with the
message itself. So, it is very easy for the receiver to know who the sender is.

MMS
The Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is the ability to send and receive messages comprising
a combination of rich media including text, sounds, images and video to MMS capable handsets.
MMS will be the first mobile messaging service to use the open Internet standards for
messaging.

The industry standards governing MMS are defined and regulated by the industry bodies, WAP
Forum and the 3G Partnership Project (3GPP).

MMS Architecture
The MMS architecture comprises the software messaging application in the MMS phone. This
application is required for the composition, sending and retrieval of multimedia messages. In
addition, other elements are required to route messages, to receive content of messages and
so on. The figure shows the general architecture of elements required for the MMS service.

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The MMS client (also known as MMS user agent in the 3GPP terminology) is the software
application which is within the mobile handset that allows the composition, viewing, sending,
retrieval of multimedia messages and the management of reports.

For the exchange of a multimedia message, the MMS client that generates and sends the
multimedia message is known as the originator MMS client, whereas the MMS client that
receives the multimedia message is known as the recipient MMS client.

The main components of MMS architecture

The industry body, 3GPP, has defined four key functional elements of an MMSC product:

• MMS Relay - the engine which transcodes and delivers messages to mobile subscribers
• MMS Server – IT uses the store-and-forward technique and sends the message to the
destination
• MMS User Agent - an application server giving users the ability to view, create, send,
edit, delete and manage their multimedia messages
• MMS User Databases - containing records of user profiles, subscription data etc
• MM1: It is the interface between MMS User Agent and MMS Center (MMSC, the
combination of the MMS Relay & Server)
• MM2: the interface between MMS Relay and MMS Server
• MM3: the interface between MMSC and other messaging systems. Using SMTP.
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• MM4: the interface between MMSC. Using SMTP

• MM5: the interface between MMSC and HLR
• MM6: the interface between MMSC and user databases
• MM7: the interface between MMS VAS applications and MMSC
• MM8: the interface between MMSC and the billing systems
• MM9: the interface between MMSC and an online charging system
• MM10: the interface between MMSC and a message service control function •
MM11: the interface between MMSC and an external transcoder

Multimedia Transmission over Wireless

It is basically the handoff process of mobile device. We are accessing video streaming, audio
streaming in our mobile devices like mobile hand Set, PDA or Laptop while moving or roaming.

User will get the live streaming while roaming in the Home Network and there is no problem.
But it is not possible to maintain the live steaming in mobile device while moving from one
network to other network because IP protocol does not allow maintaining the continuity of the
network.

It will discontinue the link from the Home Network and will connect the Visitors Network. So it
is loss of data and live streaming.

So Mobile IP (MIP) is using to avoid this problem. Mobile IP extends its support to existing IP
protocol for Host Mobility, and Handoff process by using Home Agent (HA) and Foreign Agent
(FA) network entities.

Bothe these entities HA and FA work together for the user mobility. In this way the Mobile user
will move from own network to other network without losing the network connection.

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