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PART I. A General Introduction to the Discipline of Applied Linguistics

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1. An overview of applied linguistics

● What is applied linguistics?

● What do we integrate in applied linguistics?
● Some historical observations of the evolution of AL

700-800 languages
110 countries
Why do we use different languages?
1/ Language is biological and evolves. is a capacity.
Hardwired: Born with specialized brain systems to acquire language.
2/ Also it is social. A tool that allows us to influence and understand each other in sophisticated
ways
Lack of awareness of the dual nature of language.
We do not think in language. just like breathing and walking.
1. people think in language. people commonly identify language with thought.
non-linguistic format.
mentalese is the language of thought.
We can wrap up our thought in language and this. language and thought are not the same. (
thinking without using language)
2. Children are taught L1.
it is not about imitation and instructions but also a social function.
They do not only imitate.
Child-directed speech/signs
there are many regions in the brain that are activated while speaking.
the critical period of learning.
3. the recent appearance of written language. the print press 1450. get access to it until
150 yrs. were privileged for the higher class. hence, it was thought that it is better.
However, written language is required. The advantages of writing durability and wide of
the audience are the most important features.
4. we decide if a lg is spoken properly we measure it by comparing it to the standard
form. different degrees of awareness of a set of conventions. descriptive linguistics
compares langs. sociolinguistics. different uses are rooted in issues of identity and
feelings about other linguistic groups.
5. all have accents. Broadcasting. no accent is about power
6. the intelligent by lng? a good ex is the test of intelligence. IQ. Also, in other language.
more accurate.
7. dead end 1 .code switching. are highly grammatically organized. we use it knowing that
the receiver is going to understand it.

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Language as a Property with a Dual Function: Biological and Social gpt
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Language can be understood as a property with a dual function, serving both biological
and social purposes. From a biological perspective, language is a unique human trait
that allows us to communicate and express our thoughts, emotions, and intentions. It is
a complex cognitive ability that involves various brain processes and structures,
enabling us to produce and comprehend linguistic symbols.

On the social front, language plays a crucial role in human interaction and the formation
of social groups and identities. It allows individuals to participate in communities,
transmit cultural knowledge, and establish social norms and conventions. Language also
functions as a means of social power and control, shaping social hierarchies and
influencing social relationships.

Definition of Applied Linguistics (AL)

Applied Linguistics (AL) is an academic discipline that focuses on investigating the

development and use of language in real-world situations and institutions. It aims to
understand how language choices reflect and create contexts, and to address
communication-related problems.

Applied linguists analyze language in context, examining the social and psychological
factors that influence language use and development. They study language acquisition,
language teaching and learning, bilingualism and multilingualism, language policy and
planning, discourse analysis, language assessment, and other areas that have practical
implications.

Difference between Applied Linguistics and General or Theoretical Linguistics

The main difference between Applied Linguistics and General or Theoretical Linguistics
lies in their objectives and approaches. General or Theoretical Linguistics focuses on
the scientific study of language as a system, investigating its structure, rules, and
principles. It aims to develop theories and models to explain how languages work and
how they are acquired and processed by individuals.

On the other hand, Applied Linguistics takes a more practical perspective, focusing on
the real-world application of linguistic knowledge. Applied linguists aim to solve
language-related problems and address practical issues in areas such as language
teaching, language policy, language assessment, and language planning. They draw on
theories and findings from general linguistics but also incorporate insights from other
disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and education.

The interdisciplinarity of Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that draws on insights and methodologies

from various disciplines to examine language use and development. It combines
elements of linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and other
related fields to provide a comprehensive understanding of language in context.
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By adopting an interdisciplinary approach, applied linguists are able to explore the

complex nature of language and its relationship with society, culture, cognition, and
education. This interdisciplinary perspective allows for a more holistic understanding of
language phenomena and provides a foundation for developing practical solutions to
language-related challenges.

Areas in Applied Linguistics and their Definitions

Applied Linguistics encompasses various subfields that focus on specific aspects of

language use and development. Some of the key areas within applied linguistics
include:

1. Second Language Acquisition: The study of how individuals acquire additional

languages beyond their first language and the factors that influence the language
learning process.

2. Language Teaching and Learning: The investigation of effective methodologies,

approaches, and techniques for teaching and learning languages in educational
settings.

3. Sociolinguistics: The study of how language varies and changes in social contexts,
including language variation, dialects, language and identity, and language attitudes.

4. Psycholinguistics: The exploration of the cognitive processes involved in language

production, comprehension, and acquisition, focusing on the mental mechanisms and
structures that underlie language use.

5. Bilingualism and Multilingualism: The examination of the cognitive, social, and

educational aspects of individuals who speak or use multiple languages.

6. Discourse Analysis: The analysis of language use in context, including the study of
conversation, written texts, and other forms of communication, to uncover the social,
cultural, and ideological meanings conveyed through language.

7. Language Assessment: The development and evaluation of methods and tools to

assess language proficiency, including language tests, placement exams, and
proficiency scales.

Evolution of Applied Linguistics over Time

Applied Linguistics has evolved over time, responding to changes in societal needs,
advancements in technology, and shifts in theoretical perspectives. Initially, the focus of
applied linguistics was primarily on language teaching and learning, aiming to improve
language education and meet the needs of learners.

Over the years, the field has expanded to include a broader range of areas and topics.
Applied linguists have explored language use in various professional contexts, such as
healthcare, business, law, and media. They have also examined language policy and
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planning, language assessment, and the sociocultural aspects of language and

communication.

Advancements in technology, such as computer-assisted language learning and corpus

linguistics, have also had a significant impact on the evolution of applied linguistics.
These technological developments have provided new tools and methodologies for
studying language in context and have expanded the possibilities for language teaching,
analysis, and research.

Overall, the evolution of applied linguistics has been characterized by a growing

recognition of the importance of context, interdisciplinary approaches, and the practical
application of linguistic knowledge to address real-world challenges in language use and
development.

AL. What sets it apart from other areas of linguistics? how has it evolved over time?
what does AL do? Definition in the handout.
AL is an interdisciplinary science that aims to solve problems related to language by
studying the theory and trying to apply it to our life in order to solve problems.
Al is an academic discipline that investigates the development and use of
language in real-world situations and institutions.
The way language is used
It aims to understand language choices reflect and create contexts, and to
address communication-related problems.
we think about what to say in certain situations. we chose the best. e.i: the language
depending on the context.
AL analyzes language in context and examines social and psychological factors
related to language use and development.
how language affects humans and vice versa in different situations.
Al vs GL
Similarities: describe and analyze the language.
Differences: different goals and approaches to the study of language.
Goals AG; understanding the structure by rules a…
generative grammar applications.
GL learning and teaching. vs. AL applies them to different fields. e.i.the elephants.
Principled: following a certain role.

AL evolution
Scheme

PART II. Core areas covered in Applied Linguistics

2. Applied linguistics and first language acquisition:

● how do children acquire their first language (L1)
● What theories of L1 acquisition have been proposed?
● What general stages do we find in the L1 acquisition process?
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● The critical period hypothesis in L1 acquisition: who was Genie and why
was her case interesting?

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L1 acquisition
Acquisition vs. Learning.
The subconscious process through which language is acquired. vs. the Conscious
process through which language is acquired.
Writing is a human invention that needs teaching they are not intuitively acquired.
L1 acquisition evidence:
1. genetic predisposition for language acquisition. preference for the human voice.
(DeCasper & Fifer, 1980)
Technique: High amplitude sucking.
Result: Children have an inclination toward human sounds.
prefer looking at the human face and gazing at mouth movement.
children lose interest when it is repeated. new sound renews.
Patricia Kurl
The brain of an infant: still trying to figure it out.
critical period before 7. turning procedure. distinguish sounds of other languages.
the critical period of sound development is 8-10 10-12 months. different statistics of
sounds in different languages. infants absorb those statistics.
Bilingualism keeps two sets of concepts. 2 statistics.
a magnetic device MEG. Can see how infants' brain works.
Motherese ( child-direct-speech)
1. Adult language as a model for children
2. Statistics of sounds
3. Babies can discriminate all the sounds for a specific period of 10-12 months.
4. Adult= culture-bound listeners.
5. Two sets of statistics are taken by bilinguals.
Sound (auditory) discrimination.

All babies undergo similar linguistic stages and milestones.

Prelinguistic stage: From birth to 6 months- crying, whimpering, cooing. 2 months voluntary.
Voval tracts are not as developed as in adults.
1. From 7 to 1 year. consonant+ vowel sounds. 4 to 7 changes in the vocal tract
may lead to babbling. 7 to 10 comprehension of first words.
development of babbling. 4-6 marginal babbling. 6-8vocal play. 8-12 conversational
babbling
Reduplicating babbling baba. Variegated babbling.

Holophrastic stage (1). From one year. recognize the first word. overlap with babbling. meaning
is added to their first words. For instance, 1/ noun. 2/ verbs.3/ modifiers. 4/Social international.
Stage (2): 1. full range of vowels before consonants .2. consonants in the following
order: nasals, glides, stops, liquids, fricatives, affricates.3. consonants are typically
added in front to back order of place , labials alveolars velars ….4. new contrast
generally shows up in the initial position first.
Stage(3): Languages processes:
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1. substitution
2. assimilation (use next sound)
3. simplification by omission
4. overextension one word for different things
5. underextension a word with a narrower meaning. cat-> family’s one only.
30% of words are overextended.
Two word Stage: 18-24 months. 11 consonants sounds are included. more 50 words
vocabulary. no inflectional affixes and pronouns are rare.

Telegraphic stage: Around the age of 2. Use more than 2 words together.
resembled telegram. 20 consonants and vowels are articulated by y 3.

Beyond the telegraphic stage. begins around year 3 and continues to the full development of
language skills.
Derivational affixes and compounding show uo/ then. inversion in questions.
L1 development: phonology-> morphology-> vocabulary-> grammar-> semantics
(wh questions why as last one. development)-> pragmatics.

The Fis phenomenon: Jean Berko & Roger Brown (1960)

Fis phenomenon is a phenomenon during a child's language acquisition that demonstrates that
perception of phonemes occurs earlier than a child's ability to produce the appropriate allophone. It
is also illustrative of a larger theme in child language acquisition: that skills in linguistic
comprehension generally precede corresponding skills in linguistic production.

Language acquisition is a complex process that occurs in stages. Here are the commonly
recognized stages of language acquisition:

1. Prelinguistic stage: This stage begins at birth and lasts until a child's first words appear.
During this stage, infants communicate using sounds, gestures, and facial expressions.
2. Babbling stage: Around 6 months of age, infants enter the babbling stage. This is when
they begin to produce a variety of sounds, including consonants and vowels.
3. Holophrastic or One-Word stage: This stage typically occurs between 12 and 18 months
of age, when children start to use single words to communicate whole ideas. They use
one word to express a range of ideas, such as "mama" for "I want my mother" or "more"
to indicate that they want more food.
4. Two-Word stage: Around 18 to 24 months of age, children begin to combine words to
form simple sentences, such as "more milk" or "my toy."
5. Telegraphic or Three-Word stage: By around age two, children start to put together three
or more words to create more complex sentences. However, their sentences are still
missing some of the smaller words and grammar structures, such as "I want cookie"
instead of "I want a cookie."
6. Basic adult-like grammar stage: Around age three, children begin to develop more
complex grammatical structures and use complete sentences.
7. Conversational stage: By age four or five, children have a good grasp of grammar and
vocabulary, and are able to engage in more complex conversations with others.
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It's important to note that these stages are not set in stone and children may progress through
them at different rates. Additionally, the process of language acquisition is influenced by various
factors such as the child's environment, exposure to language, and individual differences in
learning abilities.

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15/02

1. Behaviorism
learning theory - Skinner's “Verbal Behavior”
Tenets: the child just receives language. Subjected to environmental influences.
language comprehension draws on classical conditioning
Language production draws on operant conditioning; instrumental conditioning.
Question 3 Reading 2
Habit= learning
Imitation->practice->context R2 children are selective
learning is seen as a process of conditioning in an environment stimulus, reward, and
punishment.
the best to understand a behavior is to look at thereasons ond consequences of that
action.
Reinforcement is two: positive strengthens the behavior by rewarding the individual and
encourage him to repeat it, negative strengthen the behavior by removing unpleasant
experience from it. Punishment stops and weakens the behaviour.
he used animals, Skinner Box, to study the behavior. → neutral operants, reinforcers,
punishers.
2. Innatist/nativist perspective
tenets: innate universal principles- universal grammar
biological endowment over environment
biologically programmed for language. language faculty.
the logical problem of lan acquisition. the poverty of the stimulus.

3. Interactionist perspective
Tenets: experience and environment as well as the contribution of innate capacities.
interplay is important between linguistic structures and cognitive development and social
and linguistic.
The theory of Piaget is based on the relationship between the cognitive development
and first language acquisition.
Jean Piaget Swiss Child psychologist
a/ constructivism
b/discovery learning
c/child cognitive development partly determines how they acquire language.
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d/assimilation + accommodation
Formal logic ( children vs. adults)
Universal stages of development
1. Sensorimotor stage (to 2y)
object permanence
2. pre-operational stage from 2 to 7
Egocentrism
intuitive age
3. concrete operational stage from 7 to 11
conservation, reversibility, and classification.
stability of quantities
logical inferencing
4. formal operational stage from 11 onwards.
abstract concepts such as love and hate and use of deductive reasoning. we
can philosophize

Lev Vygotsky (mind and society/ the development of higher mental

processes)
1. Social constructivism.
2. social environment as key.
3. Cultural and social.
4. learning potential
5. zone of proximal development.
Scaffolding by Jerome Bruner

4. The connectionist perspective: Emergentism Edward Thorndike

connectivism.
tenets: construction of association among units strong association-
using computer simulation./ focuses on the neurological-
frequency and regularity.

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1. Behaviourism E
2. Innatism G
3. Interactionism M
4. Connectionism/ Emergentism M
Input vs. Interaction
The first one refers to the first thing child hears. the second one is as discourse. How the
input is used. the 1 goes in one direction the 2nd in two directions.
repetition.
CDS: Child-directed Speech. linguistic and paralinguistic adaptations. Features:
● Shorter utterances
● with more stress on certain words or syllables
● Substantial repetition
● Paraphrases
● Heavy reliance on questions
● Intonation contrast
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Children have different experiences with language:

Depends on the quantity and the quality of the CDS received.
CDS may not be cross-culturally and universally available
Parents who do supply CDS differ in how
1. Socio-economic status
High-SES=high number of learned words
2. Individual parental talkativeness
3. Joint attention: talking to the child and negotiating to do a certain activity.
Develops a large vocabulary by the age of 6 y.
Quantity and quality of the input are crucial. Quantity is important, but the
quality is as well. Diversity of vocabulary.
Interactional feedback: repetition with minor
modification/variation to the original utterance= RECAST.
The “no negative evidence” assumption
Types of corrective feedback
1. RECAST
2. Disapprovals/Negative reinforcement for behaviorists:
3. Negative feedback

a) Recasts: Recasts involve a subtle reformulation of a child's incorrect utterance

without explicitly indicating the error. For example, if a child says, "I goed to the park,"
the caregiver might respond with, "Oh, you went to the park?" Recasts help children
notice the correct form while maintaining the flow of conversation.

b) Disapprovals: Disapprovals involve explicit indications that a child's utterance is

incorrect or inappropriate. For instance, if a child says, "I runned all the way home," the
caregiver might respond with a disapproving tone and say, "No, it's not runned, it's ran."
Disapprovals can help children become aware of their errors and encourage them to
self-correct.

c) Negative Feedback: Negative feedback explicitly points out errors and provides
correction. It can include explicit explanations, repetition, or clarification of the correct
form. For example, if a child says, "He don't want it," the caregiver might respond, "No, it
should be 'He doesn't want it.' Remember, we use 'doesn't' with 'he'." Negative feedback
provides direct guidance to children and helps them learn from their mistakes.

Prompt Hypothesis and Direct Contrast Hypothesis are two hypotheses related to
corrective feedback:

● Prompt Hypothesis: The Prompt Hypothesis suggests that recasts and other
forms of implicit feedback are more effective in prompting language
development compared to explicit correction. According to this hypothesis,
recasts serve as subtle prompts for children to notice the discrepancy between
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their utterance and the correct form, encouraging them to internalize the
correction.
● Direct Contrast Hypothesis: The Direct Contrast Hypothesis, in contrast, posits
that explicit negative feedback and correction lead to better language learning
outcomes. According to this hypothesis, providing clear and explicit feedback
about errors helps children to notice and contrast the incorrect and correct
forms, facilitating more accurate language production.

These hypotheses represent different perspectives on the effectiveness of corrective

feedback in language acquisition, and researchers continue to study and debate their
implications.

Prompt hypothesis
Negative evidence (more explicit) is more powerful than negative feedback (implicit).

Saxton’s study on contrastive discourse. Results> Alex pays more attention and is
capable of switching.
It affects the other forms and structures. It does not work.
Evidence is Broadly supportive of the idea that negative evidence can facilitate the
acquisition of more adult-like states of grammatical knowledge. Further research is
needed!!!

1. Negative Evidence: Negative evidence refers to explicit information or linguistic data

that explicitly informs a language learner about the incorrectness of a particular
grammatical form or structure. It involves providing information that contradicts the
learner's hypotheses or misconceptions about the language. Negative evidence can
come in the form of explicit corrections, explanations, or explicit contrasts between
correct and incorrect forms. For example, if a child says, "He goed to the store,"
negative evidence would involve the caregiver explicitly correcting the child's error and
providing the correct form, such as "No, it's not 'goed,' it's 'went'."

2. Negative Feedback: Negative feedback refers to any kind of feedback or indication

given to a language learner that signals that their utterance or language use is incorrect
or inappropriate. It includes various types of corrective feedback, such as recasts,
disapprovals, or explicit corrections. Negative feedback can be implicit or explicit and
can be conveyed through tone, facial expressions, or words. For example, if a child
says, "He goed to the store," negative feedback could involve a caregiver saying, "Hmm,
did he 'goed' to the store? I think it should be 'went' instead."

In summary, negative evidence is a specific type of feedback that explicitly contradicts a

learner's incorrect hypotheses or misconceptions about the language, while negative
feedback is a broader term encompassing any kind of feedback that indicates language
errors or inappropriateness. Negative evidence is a subset of negative feedback, as it
involves providing explicit linguistic information to guide language acquisition. Both
negative evidence and negative feedback play important roles in language learning by
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helping learners to identify and correct their errors, refine their linguistic representations,
and acquire more accurate language forms.

22/02
Alternatives to Give input to children.
Before 2yrs children cannot learn from TV. live interaction is superior. Television has no
impact on the….language.
Beyond the age of 2yrs. It's possible to learn some vocabulary from TV viewing.
1. regular viewing of Teletubbies from the age of six months -> low vocabulary
scores at three yrs of age.
2. Dora the explorer, Blue’s Clue, and Dragon Tales did have a beneficial effect on
vocabulary and expressive language.
3. ,,,,
By the age of 3 yrs. given an optimal program style. Children can learn from TV. Why->
language acquisition has long since taken off in exceptional fashion. children are well equipped.

Children can learn new words at age 27 by overhearing from adults. Interacting with
children predicts vocabulary size but not the speech overheard. Constant background
TV.
CPH Lenneberg
1967-> Brain’s cerebral lateralization. Cognitive functions localized in one or other
lateral. Begins around 2 years(others believe that it started before). It has to do with
brain plasticity. The left hemisphere is responsible.
The Broca's area= the production of the speech. (difficulty of speech).
Wernick’s area= Understanding and creating meaning in speech. (difficulty making a
meaningful speech)
Variables in research: dependent( the one measured and experimented on) and
independent variables: researchers can manipulate and change(walking for instance,
and see the results). Control and experimental groups.
dependent variables are the variables that researchers measure or observe, while
independent variables are manipulated or changed to investigate their effects on the
dependent variable. By carefully controlling and manipulating independent variables,
researchers can examine their impact on the outcomes of interest.

28/02
“No. No cookie. No comb hair” only use no as negation
“Daddy no comb hair. Don’t touch it ” the use of don’t
“He don’t comb hair. He don’t want cookie”auxiliary verbs are used but not subject correct verb
the last one shows the development of the use of past tense and the present.

the ability to use question is related to their understanding.

1. What: as part of a chunk
2. where and who:
3. Why
4. when and how
the understanding of time: the example of going outside.
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Cookie? Mommy book?

You like this? I have some?
is the teddy is tired? Do he can have a cookie Fronting
Why the teddy bear can't go outside ask him why can’t go

the acquisition order

● ing
● in, on
● plural s
● possessive s
● the, a
● past tense ed
● 3rd person singular s
● auxiliary “be”
Children’s growth of vocabulary:
Constraints: Assumptions th…
● Whole object
● Mutual exclusively constraint
● Taxonomic constraint
● Fast mapping
1. whole object bias: the word is for the whole object not part of it.
2. children assume there is one word for one object. there is no synonym for children.
3. assume that objects or animals have features in common-> common name(pet or
animal) + also a specific name. classify and differentiate and recognize differences and
discriminate.
4. Syntactic bootstrapping & Semantic bootstrapping. s -> noun ed-> verb.
5. Taxonomic Constraint: The taxonomic constraint, also known as the categorical
assumption, is a principle in child language development that suggests that
children tend to assume that words refer to categories or classes of objects
rather than individual objects. For example, if a child learns the word "bird," they
may initially apply it to all flying creatures, including butterflies or bats.
6. Fast Mapping: Fast mapping is a cognitive process by which children quickly and
flexibly learn and understand new words. It allows children to form initial
hypotheses about the meanings of words based on limited exposure and then
refine their understanding through further experiences and context. Fast
mapping enables children to rapidly expand their vocabulary by inferring the
meaning of words in real-time

The concepts of critical period and sensitive period both refer to specific time frames during
which individuals are particularly receptive to acquiring certain skills or abilities. However, there
are some differences between these two concepts:

1. Critical Period: The critical period refers to a specific time window in an organism's
development during which it is essential to acquire certain skills or abilities. If the opportunity to
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learn or develop these skills is missed during the critical period, it becomes significantly more
difficult or even impossible to acquire them later in life. The critical period is characterized by a
heightened level of neuroplasticity, meaning the brain is more adaptable and responsive to
learning and environmental influences. The critical period is often associated with the
development of language and certain aspects of sensory perception, such as binocular vision in
humans.

2. Sensitive Period: The sensitive period is a broader concept that refers to a developmental
phase during which individuals are highly receptive to acquiring specific skills or knowledge.
Unlike the critical period, missing the sensitive period does not necessarily mean that the ability
to acquire the skill is permanently lost. However, the sensitive period represents a period of
optimal learning capacity, where individuals can acquire skills more easily and efficiently.
Although the sensitivity to acquiring these skills may decline after the sensitive period, learning
can still occur, albeit with more effort and potentially reduced proficiency.

In summary, the critical period is a narrow time frame during which the acquisition of certain
skills or abilities is crucial and becomes challenging or impossible if missed. On the other hand,
the sensitive period is a broader phase when individuals are highly receptive to learning specific
skills or knowledge, although the opportunity to learn may still exist outside of this period, albeit
with more difficulty. Both concepts emphasize the importance of timing and environmental
factors in shaping developmental outcomes.

01/03
Multimodal text: different modes of communication working together without one being dominant
Linguistic landscapes: a
visual representation of language use in a community.
language of public road signs, ads, street names, places…
Landry and Bourhis’ (1997) study of the distribution of language on public signing in Canada and the
reaction of francophone high schools.
Collins and Slembrouk study
Lanza and Woldeemarian
Linguistic landscapes: Types and causes
1. caused by social bilingualism: official bilingual cities that make public use of 2 or more lng.
2. caused by immigration: to make and create a community for immigrants.
3. caused by cosmopolitanism and/or globalization: En is the dominant one associated with
international banking and business, French luxury, Italian fashion, and gastronomy.
4. Caused by tourism: to try to adapt to foreign visitors.
Sayer, P. (2010): Analisis and categories used in a project with students in Mexico.
The audience, purpose, type, and social meanings.
Cross-cultural: info to foreign visitors such as restaurants and so on.
Intracultural: used by speakers of the same language L1 different from English.
Iconic or innovative: Corporate logos and slogans/novel forms of language. often accompanied with
iconic images of American cartoon characters.
1. English is advanced and sophisticated: the most prevalent social meaning of English/ the
products and people associate English with advanced and sophisticated.
2. English is fashion: Is used as fashionable and modern.
3. English is cool: adolescent and
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4. English for expressing subversive identities: social protest and music …

07/03
SLA
Second language acquisition: any language different from L1
● Purposes
AL: additional language=TL= L2
Difference between L2 and FL. L2 is official. FL not widely used
Scope of SLA:
● Informal L2 learning
● Formal L2
● Mixture
SLA: 3 questions that AL tries to answer:
1. What L2 learners come to know
2. How to acquire L2
3. Why do some learners overperform over others
L2 abroad?TFG!

SLA Theory: comes from research, and could be

1. Accurate
2. Consistent
3. Broad scope
4. Simple
5. Fruitful
Hypothesis: Prediction about a distinct phenomenon that derives from another theory.

● SLA’s theoretical perspectives:

Innate
L1 acquisition
input
attention and memory
social nature of learning
language forms

1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

In the 1950s-> structuralism –> CA was developed by structural linguists in Europe and North
America.
The 1950s->Behaviourism (Brooks and Robert Lado are influenced by behaviorism).
L1 and L2 can be learned by the same processes. —--> Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
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When there are similarities between L1 and L2, the structures are learned with ease, but when
there are differences, it is difficult to learn L2 structures. However, learners don’t commit all the
errors predicted by CAH
Proponents: Robert Lado ()
● The implication from L2 teaching: different structures between L1 and TL-> errors.
● Hierarchy of difficulty: Zero level: no difficulty. Level 5(split)
Assumption: Transfer= cross-linguistic influences in lang learning
● Positive: Same structure in L1 and L2
● Negative: L1 and L2 differ
Types of interference: as the form and meaning ….

1. Phonological Interference: This type of interference occurs when the sound

system of the learner's L1 influences their pronunciation of sounds in the L2. For
example, a Spanish speaker learning English may pronounce the English "th"
sound as "s" or "z" due to the absence of the "th" sound in Spanish.
2. Lexical Interference: Lexical interference refers to the influence of L1 vocabulary
on the learner's choice of words in the L2. This can result in the use of L1 words
that have similar meanings but may not be appropriate in the L2 context. For
instance, a French speaker might use the French word "actuellement" (meaning
"currently") instead of the appropriate English word "actually" due to their
similarity.
3. Syntactic Interference: Syntactic interference involves L1 grammar patterns
influencing the learner's sentence structure and word order in the L2. Learners
may produce sentences in the L2 that follow the structure of their L1, leading to
grammatical errors. For example, a Mandarin Chinese speaker might say "I go
store" instead of "I go to the store" because Mandarin Chinese does not require
prepositions in this context.
4. Semantic Interference: Semantic interference occurs when the learner's L1
affects their understanding and interpretation of L2 meanings. This can lead to
confusion or misinterpretation of words, idioms, or expressions. For instance, a
Russian speaker may struggle to understand the English idiom "raining cats and
dogs" if the literal translation does not exist in Russian.

CA shortcomings:
1. cannot predict all of the errors and also some learners don’t care to make errors. “careless
mistakes”
2. It’s seen only the interference of the L1 in the L2 but not the other way around.
3.
CLI: cross-linguistic influence
 16

that the second language learner's language was shaped entirely and only by the transfer of
linguistic patterns from the native language. Lado had argued that because of learners' reliance
on their NL rules, a good contrastive analysis of the NL and the TL could accurately predict all
the difficulties that learners would encounter in trying to learn the TL. However, there was little
if any empirical evidence to support this claim. In the late 1950s and the 1960s, there were
virtually no systematic attempts to observe learner language and document the way in which
learner language developed, and no data were reported which could independently and
objectively verify the strong claims of the contrastive analysis hypothesis that language transfer
was the sole process shaping learner language.

2. Error Analysis PIT CORDER

● learners' errors, not due to L1 due to generalization
● Frequency of error changes as the learner advance → transitional competence is what
Selinker called interlanguage.
● Pit Corder-> noticing the error is vital to learning
EA: Error Analysis (definition?) Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Corder
and colleagues. Error analysis (EA) was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach
influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions
between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that
contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable
aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error
analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences
about the rules of the new language.
Procedures for EA:
1. Collection of learner language
2. Identification of errors
3. Description of error
4. Explanation of error
5. Evaluation
Types of L2 errors: One of the short comings is that what type of error the learner does.
1. Interlingual: negative transfer
Interlingual error is caused by the interference of the native language L1 (also known as
interference, linguistic interference, and crosslinguistic influence), whereby the learner
tends to use their linguistic knowledge of L1 on some Linguistic features in the target
language, however, it often leads to making errors. The example, provided by J. Richard
et al. (2002) ‘’ the incorrect French sentence Elle regarde les (“She sees them”),
produced according to the word order of English, instead of the correct French sentence
Elle les regarde (Literally, “She them sees”). (P. 267) shows the type of errors aroused by
the negative effect of the native language interference.
2. Intralingual: developmental error that comes from the learners.
Intralingual error is an error that takes place due to a particular misuse of a particular rule
of the target language, it is, in fact, quite the opposite of Interlingual error, it puts the
target language into focus, the target language in this perspective is thought of as an error
 17

cause. Furthermore, J. Richard, et al. (2002) consider it as one which results from ‘’faulty
or partial’’ learning of the target language.

Korean student of English: (In Kr, articles are not used+ do not distinguish between have and be)
Is been: intralingual
In the Washington: intralingual
There climate: interlingual
EA shortcomings:
1. Ambiguity
2. Lack of positive data
3. Potential of avoidance
Error (Ignorance of the rule ) vs. Mistake (Deviation although the familiarity with the rule)
Competence vs. Performance

Learner language= interlanguage (Selinker)

Interlanguage is the type of language or linguistic system used by second- and foreign-language
learners who are in the process of learning a target language. The general idea that the language
of second language learners is an autonomous linguistic system, distinct from both NL and TL
the creative process with the following characteristics:
1. Systematic
2. Dynamic
3. Variable
4. reduced
systematic, dynamic, variable, and simplified,

Selinker proposed that interlanguages have all the normal properties of natural languages. In
other words, they are systematic and bound by rules in the same manner as any other language.
Furthermore, Selinker proposed that interlanguage is based on three basic principles:
over-generalization from patterns found in the language being learned, transfer from patterns
found in the learner's native language, and fossilization, the phenomenon of a learner's language
ceasing to develop
Fossilization in language is a phenomenon where certain linguistic features become fixed
and resistant to change in a person's writing and speech
One of Selinker's most controversial claims is that interlanguage always “fossilizes”—it stops
developing at some point before it becomes identical with the target language system. In other
words, adult second language learners never reach their goal—they can never produce the target
language as accurately as someone who acquired it natively.
04/03 SLA
3. UG: generative grammar → Chomsky
➔ Main tenets: Universal principles
➔ innate ability
➔ Competence vs Performance: knowledge of the language vs how to use it
1. Logical problem or Poverty of the stimulus argument.
 18

Language faculty: born with natural language. (built-in capacity)

input(stimulus)→LAD(black box)→output

Reconceptualization of UG: principles and parameters.

➔ Principles: common and applicable to all languages
➔ Parameters: limited choices of settings for each natural language
Ex: NP: noun in all languages(UG principles) vs. The N takes different positions
depending on the parameters of the language. (head-initial/head-final)
UG can be used for SLA? → 3 hypotheses
1. are the same → Direct access
2. available but affected by L1 → Indirect access
3. no access to UG → No access
UG shortcomings:
1. lack of exploration of the social or sociocultural context of language
2. abstraction from the real world
3. no evidence for separate language modules,

4. The monitor Model/Input hypothesis- Krashen

a. Adopted LAD
b. 5 hypotheses:
i. Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: Subconscious vs conscious. Aquisition
→ leads to productive output. Learning → serves as a monitor.
The psychologist Barry McLaughlin questioned if this hypothesis could
be experimented empirically. Are the 5 hypotheses could be tested by
empirical research.
ii. The monitor hypothesis: Learning just modifies what we acquired.
Conditions for the Monitor and allowing editing are:
the acquired system works as a monitor, and it is responsible for the
spontaneous use of language, making minor changes and polishing what
the acquired system has produced. this monitoring happens only when the
individual.
1. Focus on them
2. sufficient time
3. know the relevant grammatical rule

iii. the natural order hypothesis: language elements are acquired in a fixed,
pre-determined order. → morpheme order studies.
for example S of the 3rd singular is easy to state but learners of SL fail to
apply this rule in spontaneous conversations.
iv. The comprehensible input hypothesis(exposure to comprehensible input is
crucial to learn) the acquisition occurs when the input is comprehensible.
and should be One level beyond the learner's current level(i+1)
Large quantities of Comprehensible Input lead the learner to activate a
filter resulting in no learning.
 19

v. The affective filter hypothesis. Certain conditions can cause Lad

blockage. conditions for the blocking are related to the learner's emotional
state. AFH prevent learners from acquiring the language even when the
appropriate input is available.

5. The Comprehensible Output_ Merrill Swain

As a response to the corrective feedback and negotiation of meaning. Merrill Swain proposed the
output hypothesis. She extended his thinking.
She hypothesized that it is when learners are in situations where they have to make their output
comprehensible. At that moment they realize their level of competence and try to push and
develop themselves. they see the limit of their SL ability and try other ways to convey and
express their meaning
a. Merrill Swain: Learning → motivation → proficiency → learning
b. Comprehensible input is not sufficient. output
c. using language is what pushes learners ahead
● the output helps to analyze grammatical aspects of L2
● The output helps to draw attention to gaps in L2 → room for improvement
● output elicits relevant input
6. Information Processing/cognitive approach Robert DeKeyser and Schmidt
(a major perspective of psychology in the 1950s)
Paying attention to the information means to use cognitive resources to process information.
However, there a limit to how much the learner can pay attention to. through experience and
practice learners acquire new forms that becomes automatically accessed to. And they pay
attention to other forms that gradually become automatic and os on.
there a limit of time of focused mental activity. the example of proficient student that pay
attention to the meaning of ht ewhole text while others pay attention to words who account for
why they take more time then proficient students.
mental processes used for interpreting experience are also involved in SLA. Proponents Robert
DeKeyser and Schmidt
differ from UG in that it claims that there is a separate language function and info processing …
mind is limited in terms of its capacity →
2 fundamental aspects:
➔ Controlled processing→ skill learning, effortful
➔ automatic processing → when a skill becomes controlled, rapidly
Declarative knowledge vs procedural knowledge.
Declarative knowledge is knowledge about facts and things, knowledge that something is the
case. In contrast, procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to perform certain cognitive
activities, such as reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving.
The declarative knowledge disappears because of the procedural knowledge. Learners when they
acquire declarative knowledge they practice and with time they forget the declarative knowledge
that is why fluent speakers forget that they once had acquired the declarative knowledge that set
the process in motion.
1. Transfer→ CA
2. markedness Jim example
 20

Markedness Differential Hypothesis(MDH)

➔ 1, 2, 3
Typological markedness theory (not VIP)
3. Formulaic sequences: Prefabricated learned (like chunks in L1 acquisition)
4. Fossilization: make mistakes that you are aware of them. → stabilization
The Information Processing Model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, describes the
stages involved in the processing and storage of information in human memory. The model
consists of three main stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Here's an overview of each stage:

1. Sensory Memory: Sensory memory is the first stage of the information processing model. It
refers to the initial sensory impressions of stimuli from the environment. The sensory memory
retains a large amount of sensory information for a brief period of time, typically ranging from a
fraction of a second to a few seconds. It allows us to briefly perceive and retain sensory input,
such as visual images (iconic memory) and auditory sounds (echoic memory).

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): The second stage is short-term memory, which is responsible for
temporarily holding and processing information that is consciously attended to. Short-term
memory has limited capacity and duration. It can store a small amount of information, usually
around 7±2 chunks of information, for a duration of about 20-30 seconds. Maintenance
rehearsal, which involves repeating or mentally rehearsing information, helps to keep the
information in short-term memory.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory is the third and final stage of the information
processing model. It is responsible for the storage of information over an extended period, from
minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity and can store
various types of information, including facts, experiences, skills, and concepts. Information from
short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory through processes such as encoding,
consolidation, and retrieval.

It's important to note that the Atkinson and Shiffrin model is a simplified representation of
human memory and has been subject to further development and refinement by subsequent
research. Nonetheless, the model provides a useful framework for understanding the basic stages
of information processing and storage in memory.

15/03

7. The interaction Hypothesis of Michael Long & Susan Gass:

interaction makes input comprehensible and Comprehensible input PROMOTES
ACQUISITION. therefore, interaction promotes acquisition.
Evidence in Foreigner Talk: L1 speaker to L2 speaker not native.
Modified interaction does not involve linguistic simplification always, but also:
Modifications →
 21

● Elaboration, comprehension checks: do you understand?, clarification request: can you

repeat, please? , self-repetition or paraphrase: native speaker repeats the same sentence.
● Slower speech rate
● Gestures
● Contextual clues
● Recast
● rephrasing
Long emphasized → the role of corrective feedback during interaction
Long defined negotiation of meaning as a process of understanding the conversation. is crucial
for language development.

8. The Noticing Hypothesis Richard Schmidt

This hypothesis came from his own experience as a learner of Portuguese. He acquired certain
things only when he started to notice them in Brazil.
Learners could not acquire language features until they had become aware of it in the input.
the important distinction between input, output, and intake which is part of the input that the
learner notices.
NH is what the learner notice in the input is what becomes intake for learning.
The hypothesis was based on a study on the L2 progress of Wes.
Noticed progress of Wes. However, he has lack attention.
1→ actively process the input 2→ noticing →aware of the input
Factors leading to noticing:
● frequency of language
● Perceptual salience
● Instructional strategies and individual processing ability
● Readiness to notice
● Task demands
Shortcomings:
● We acquire information without noticing sometimes.
9. Sociocultural Perspective Vygotsky’s theory
Vy interaction is essential- facilitate language learning and causative force in acquisition.
vs is essential not only a cause
vs limited attention to structure L2 and universal faculties
ZPD vs Krashen’s i+1: Co-construction. i+a comes from the individual?
Scaffolding Bruner’s

SLA Scenarios
21/03

1. Intelligence:(3 views)
● Charles Spearman’s model → single factor called “g”
● Charles Spearman's Theory of Intelligence Explained - HRF
(healthresearchfunding.org)
 22

● Howard Gardner’s model → 9 types of intelligence Gardner's Theory of Multiple

Intelligences (verywellmind.com)
● Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and
educators. These critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too
broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents,
personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of
supporting empirical research.
● Strenberg’s model → 3 specific characteristics: analytical, creative, and practical
or contextual theory.
● Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence - Psynso
● Sternberg’s definition of human intelligence is “(a) mental activity directed
toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world
environments relevant to one’s life” (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45), which means that
intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes
throughout their lifespan. Sternberg’s theory comprises three parts:
componential, experiential, and practical.
Intelligence vs L2 ??
(PDF) The Role of Intelligence in Second Language Learning (researchgate.net)
Genesee (1976). context: test chidren
result: some of the ..correlated with IQ test
The current research was undertaken to assess the role of intelligence, as measured by
standardized, group I.Q. tests, in the acquisition of a second language. Anglophone students
from three different grade levels (4, 7 and 11) in each of two types of second language programs
were evaluated on a battery of French language tests, including tests of reading, language usage,
listening comprehension and interpersonal communication. The students were enrolled in regular
French-as-a-second language courses and in French immersion courses where French is used as
a medium of course instruction during all or part of the school day. A sample of average, below
average and above average students was selected to represent each program at each grade level.
The test results indicated that performance on the reading and language- usage tests correlated
with IQ level. On the other hand, performance on the tests of listening comprehension and
interpersonal communication skills did not correlate with IQ level. This was true for students at
all grade levels in both types of language programs. The results are discussed in terms of first
language acquisition.

Cummins (1979) distinguishes 2 kinds of language ability.

1) cognitive language ability (CALP): the dimension of language proficiency related to cognitive
and academic skills.
2) basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS): skills required for oral fluency.
Cummins' framework distinguishes between two types of language ability: Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). Here's
an overview of each type:
 23

1. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS): BICS refers to the everyday conversational
language skills that individuals use in social interactions. This type of language ability is
context-embedded and relies on face-to-face communication, gestures, and contextual cues.
BICS typically develops within the first few years of language acquisition and allows individuals
to engage in casual conversations, understand everyday language, and communicate effectively
in familiar settings.

2. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP): CALP, on the other hand, involves the
more complex language skills required for academic learning and cognitive tasks. This type of
language ability is context-reduced and focuses on formal language use, such as reading, writing,
and comprehending academic content. CALP involves understanding and using language in
abstract and decontextualized ways, which are essential for academic success in subjects like
mathematics, science, and social studies. Developing CALP takes longer than developing BICS
and typically requires explicit instruction and exposure to academic language.

Cummins' framework suggests that individuals who are proficient in their first language (L1)
BICS may mistakenly be assumed to have the same level of CALP in a second language (L2).
However, acquiring CALP in an L2 requires specific language instruction and practice that goes
beyond the development of everyday conversational skills.

The BICS and CALP framework by Jim Cummins has been influential in understanding
language proficiency in educational contexts and has implications for language instruction and
assessment, particularly for second language learners.

2. Aptitude
The talent of learning a language.
Language learning ability. characteristic controlling the rate of progress that an individual will
make is learning a FL. → attainment: to what extent the individual approaches the L1.
➔ John Carroll → 4 features of aptitude:
1. phonemic coding ability
2. Inductive language learning ability
3. Grammatical sensitivity
4. Associative memory capacity
Aptitude is:
➔ 1. Separate from general IQ and achievement
➔ 2. Separate from motivation
➔ 3. a stable factor and probably innate
➔ 4. A capacity that enhances the rate and ease of learning.

(BLAP not VIP)

Evidence from empirical studies of aptitude:
● L1 is linked to L2: Skehan→ L2 scors linked to aptitude+ L1 development before 5 yrs
was linked with language aptitude.
 24

Aptitude continuum:
1/ Learners with good performance and difficulty in LL (lang learning):
Sparks:
2/Poor academic performance but excel in language learning
Sparks’s and Ganschow’s longitudinal investigations over 10 years found that students’ L1
literacy skills and L1 vocabulary knowledge in elementary school explained from 65% to 72%
of the variance in L2 aptitude on the MLAT measured several years later in ninth grade (Sparks
et al.,. Even so, most studies have found that the MLAT is the strongest single predictor of L2
achievement, even when L1 variables were also being examined.
Lorraine Obler Lorraine Obler is a renowned neurolinguist and psychologist known for her
research in the field of language and the brain.
Smith …
3. Attitude and motivation:
Attitude: is a predisposition to respond toward someone or something
3 dimensions:
➔ Attitude towards the L 2 community
➔ Attitude towards learning LT
➔ Attitude towards language and language learning in general
Motivation: effort desire attitude.
2 types:
1/ intrinsic motivation
2/Extrensic
2 orientation:
Integrative and instrumental.
Motivation is dynamic and changes over time.
The context of learning can influence the degree and type of motivation
Evidence from empirical studies of attitude and motivation:
positive attitude → better results (Ushia, 2005)
motivated learners → more success
Intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic however a combination of them is good.
Integrative motivation plays an important role in enhancing interaction in the L2 and this leads
to L2 improvement.

4. Personality
(Not that VIP)
Models to measure personality in empirical studies:
➔ MBTI questionnaire (16 personalities and 4 dimensions)
➔ The “Big Five” view:
➢ Conscientiousness – impulsive, disorganized vs. disciplined, careful
➢ Agreeableness – suspicious, uncooperative vs. trusting, helpful
➢ Neuroticism – calm, confident vs. anxious, pessimistic
➢ Openness to Experience – prefers routine, practical vs. imaginative, spontaneous
➢ Extraversion – reserved, thoughtful vs. sociable, fun-loving
 25

Studies to measure personality are not conclusive.

EXTRAVERSION VS INTROVERSION
INHIBITION: Discouraging the learner to risk-taking
ANXIETY is a temporary→ because the learner thinks about the reaction of the receiver. Not all
anxiety is negative.
WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE (WTC): Clément, Barker, and
Maclntyre→Communicative confidence and its 2 variables→ how relaxed L2 learner and how
competent.
5. Learning style and cognitive style
Cognitive style: is a stable manner of processing information
is the individual´s preferred manner of processing.
Cognitive styles:
Dependent Field and Independent Field: were introduced by Witkin. Based on an embedded
figures test. Requires subjects to find simple shapes in a more complex design. Those who could
not find shape are judged to be field dependent while those who find the shape are field
independent.
6. Age
Critical Period Hypothesis:
Old learners are better.
It depends on the context and goals.
➢ In educational settings(Burstall and Muñoz) → older children outperformed the others
➢ The goal

12/04
Corpus linguistics

Study of linguistics through collections of machine-readable texts: corpora

focuses on methods
Its heterogenous field
1. empirical, analyzing text in natural contexts
2. principled collection of naturally occurring texts as the basis for analysis used
3. it makes extensive …
4. quantitative (relies on numbers)and qualitative → mixed-method analysis
Types:
1. generalized corpora: more than 10 M words, a variety of representative languages,
balanced regarding genres and domains that represent the language.
Ex: BNC, ANC, COCA
2. Specialized: texts of a certain type, large or small→ very specific question.
E.g: MICASE, CHILDES, MICUSP, CPSA.
3. Learner Corpora:
Tagged. Ex:
4. pedagogic corpora
classroom setting
study a particular language
 26

5. Synchronic (vs diachronic) corpora

contain language data from one time period. So, they can be used for comparing language
varieties.
6. Diachronic corpora
Cross-sectional study(specific)vs. Longitudinal study (through X period of time)
Building corpora: Wordsmith Tools and Monoconc Pro.
1. genre
2. text selection
3. text cleaning
4. text tagging
→ test the theories of SLA or 1LA, create and inform multifarious teaching resources, and
analyze how language is used in literary works.
Token, hit, occurrences, concordance lines, genres.
Collocates: words that go together.
MAXCDA