KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES

1.1 Rectilinear Motion

A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion. The variables
involve are time t and distance along the line, x.

1.1.1 Position, Velocity & Acceleration

Position

At any given instant time t, a particle in

rectilinear motion occupies some position on
the straight line.

Position Coordinate

- Distance x, with appropriate sign,

completely defines the position of the
particle.

Velocity

When we know the position coordinate x of a particle for every value of time t, we say
that the motion of the particle is known. The units most often used to measure the position
coordinate x are the meter
(m) in the SI system of units and the foot (ft) in the U.S. customary system of units. Time t is
usually measured in seconds (s).

Now consider the position P occupied by the particle at time t and the corresponding
coordinate x (Fig. 11.2). Consider also the position P’ occupied by the particle at a later time
t + Δt. We can obtain the

1
position coordinate of P’ by adding the small displacement Δx to the coordinate x of P. This
displacement is positive or negative according to whether P’ is to the right or to the left of P.

Average Velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt as the quotient of the
displacement Δx and the time interval Δt as
𝛥𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝛥𝑡

If we use SI units, Δx is expressed in meters and Δt in seconds; the average velocity is

then expressed in meters per second (m/s). If we use U.S. customary units, Δx is expressed in
feet and Δt in seconds; the average velocity is then expressed in feet per second (ft/s).

We can determine the instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the instant t by

allowing the time interval Δt to become infinitesimally small. That is,
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣 = 𝛥𝑥
lim
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡

The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s. Observing that the limit of
the quotient is equal, by definition, to the derivative of x with respect to t, we have

Velocity of a particle along a line

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

Speed
- Is the magnitude of velocity.

Acceleration
The average acceleration of the particle over the time interval
Δt as the quotient of Δv and Δt as

𝛥𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛥𝑡
=

If we use SI units, Δv is expressed in m/s and Δt in seconds; the average

acceleration is then expressed in m/s2. If we use U.S. customary units, Δv is expressed in ft/s
and Δt in seconds; the average acceleration is then expressed in ft/s2.

We obtain the instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the instant t by

again allowing the time interval Δt to approach zero. Thus,
𝛥𝑣
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎 = lim
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s2. The limit of

the quotient, which is by definition the derivative of v with respect to t, measures the rate of
change of the velocity. We have,

2
 Acceleration of a particle along a straight line

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

Sometimes we use the term deceleration to refer to a when the speed of the
particle (i.e., the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving more slowly.

Concept Application

Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume that its position is defined by

𝒙 = 𝟔𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟑
where t is in seconds and x in meters.

We can obtain the velocity v at any time t by differentiating x with respect to t as,

d
𝒂 = 𝒗 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟔𝒕
𝒅
𝒕

3
Sample Problems
1. The position of a particle moving along a straight line is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 𝑡3 − 6𝑡2 − 15𝑡
+ 40, where x is expressed in feet and t in seconds. Determine
(a) the time at which the velocity is zero,
(b) the position and distance traveled by the particle at that time,
(c) the acceleration of the particle at that time,
(d) the distance traveled by the particle from t=4s to t=6s

2. You throw a ball vertically upward with a velocity of 10 m/s from a window located 20 m above the
ground. Knowing that the acceleration of the ball is constant and equal to 9.81 m/s2 downward,
determine
(a) the velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t,
(b) the highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value of t,
(c) the time when the ball hits the ground and the corresponding velocity.

4
2.2 Special Cases and Relative Motion

Special cases include uniform rectilinear motion and uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion. Meanwhile,
the concept of relative motion is important whenever we consider the motion of more than one particle at the
same time.

2.2.1 Uniform Rectilinear Motion

Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of straight-line motion that is frequently encountered in
practical applications. In this motion, the acceleration a of the particle is zero for every value of t. The velocity
v is therefore constant,
𝒅𝒙
= 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕
To obtain the position coordinate x, we integrate this equation,

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑜

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑣𝑡

𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 + 𝒗𝒕

This equation can be used only if the velocity of the particle is known to be
constant.

Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is another common type of motion.
In this case, the acceleration a of the particle is constant,
𝒅𝒗
= 𝒂 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕
To obtain the velocity v of the particle, we integrate this equation,

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜 0

5
 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑡

𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕

Substituting v, we have,

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑥 = න ( 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑜 0

1 2
𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2

Also, using the equation,

𝑑 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑣 𝑣
𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑
𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑥

6
 𝑣 𝑥
න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 න 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑜 𝑥𝑜
1
(𝑣2 − 𝑣 2) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
0 𝑜
2
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎)

The three equations we have derived provide useful relations among position, velocity, and time in the
case of constant acceleration, once you have provided appropriate values for a, vo and xo. An important
application of uniformly accelerated motion is the motion of a body in free fall. The acceleration of a body in
free fall (usually denoted by g) is equal to 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2 (we ignore air resistance in this case).

It is important to keep in mind that the three equations can be used

only when the acceleration of the particle is known to be constant.

Sample Problems
1. In an elevator shaft, a ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 18 m/s from a
height of 12 m above ground. At the same instant, an open-platform elevator passes the 5-m level,
moving upward with a constant velocity of 2 m/s. Determine when and where the ball hits the
elevator.

2. Car A is travelling at a constant 90 mi/h when she passes a parked police officer B, who gives chase
when the car passes her. The officer accelerates at a constant rate until she reaches the speed of
105 mi/h. Thereafter, her speed remains constant. The police officer catches the car 3 mi from her
starting point. Determine the initial acceleration of the police officer.

7
Motion of a Projectile

The components of the acceleration for the case of the motion of a projectile are;

If the resistance of the air is neglected. Denoting the coordinates of a gun by xo, yo, and zo
and the components of the initial velocity vo of the projectile by (vx)o, (vy)o, and (vz)o, we can
integrate twice in t and obtain,

8
 If the projectile is fired in the xy plane from the origin O, we have xo = yo = zo = 0, so the
equations of motion reduce to

Note that the equations defining the coordinates x and y of a projectile at any instant are the
parametric equations of a parabola. Thus, the trajectory of a projectile is parabolic. This result,
however, ceases to be valid if we take into account the resistance of the air or the variation with altitude
of the acceleration due to gravity.

Sample Problems

A projectile is fired from the edge of a 150-m cliff

with an initial velocity of 180 m/s at an angle of 30°
with the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find
(a) the horizontal distance from the gun to the
point where the projectile strikes the ground,
(b) the greatest elevation above the ground
reached by the projectile.

A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 800 ft/s at a target B

located 2000 ft above the gun A and at a horizontal distance of
12,000 ft. Neglecting air resistance, determine the value of the
firing angle α needed to hit the target.

9
10