KINETICS OF PARTICLES: NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Newton's law of gravitation.

3.1 Newton’s Second Law and Linear Momentum
In statics, we used Newton’s first and third laws of motion extensively to study bodies at rest and the
forces acting upon them. We also use these two laws in dynamics; in fact, they are sufficient for analyzing the
motion of bodies that have no acceleration. However, when a body is accelerated–– that is, when the magnitude
or the direction of its velocity changes––it is necessary to use Newton’s second law of motion to relate the motion
of the body to the forces acting on it.

First law: If no net force acts on a particle, then it is possible to select a set of reference frames, called
inertial reference frames, observed from which the particle moves without any change in velocity.
Second law: Observed from an inertial reference frame,
the net force on a particle is proportional to the time rate of change of
its linear momentum: F = d[mv] / dt. Momentum is the product of
mass and velocity. This law is often stated as F = ma (the net force
on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its
acceleration)
Third law: Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another
particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same
magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong form of the law
further postulates that these two forces act along the same line.

3.1.1 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

We can state Newton’s second law as follows:
If the resultant force acting on a particle
is not zero, the particle has an acceleration
proportional to the magnitude of the resultant
and in the direction of this resultant force.

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 The constant value obtained for the ratio of the
magnitudes of the forces and accelerations is a
characteristic of the particle under consideration; it is
called the mass of the particle and is denoted by
m. When a particle of mass m is acted upon by a force F,
the force F and the acceleration a of the particle must
therefore satisfy the relation

When a particle is subjected simultaneously to several forces, the equation should be replaced by

where ∑F represents the sum or resultant of all the forces acting on the particle.

3.1.2 Linear Momentum of a Particle and its Rate of Change

Suppose we replace the acceleration a in the equation
by the derivative dv/dt. We have

Since the mass m of the particle is constant, we

can write this as

The product mv is called the linear momentum, or simply the momentum, of the particle. It has the
same direction as the velocity of the particle, and its magnitude is equal to the product of the mass m and the
speed v of the particle (Fig. 12.3). The equation says,

The resultant of the forces acting on the particle is equal to the rate
of change of the linear momentum of the particle.

The second law of motion was originally stated by Newton in this form.
Denoting the linear momentum of the particle by L, we have

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 It follows that the rate of change of the linear
momentum mv is zero when ∑F=0. Thus, we have the statement:
If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the linear
momentum of the particle remains constant in both magnitude and
direction.
This is the principle of conservation of linear momentum for a particle.

3.1.3 Systems of Units

International System of Units (SI Units). In this system, the base units are the units of
length, mass, and time and are called, respectively, the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second
(s).

The weight W of a body, or the force of gravity exerted on that body, should, like any other force, be
expressed in newtons.

U.S. Customary Units. Most practicing American engineers still commonly use a system in which
the base units are those of length, force, and time. These units are, respectively, the foot (ft), the pound
(lb), and the second (s). The second is the same as the corresponding SI unit. The foot is equal to 0.3048 m.
The pound is defined as the weight of a platinum standard, called the standard pound, which is kept at
the National Institute of Standards and Technology outside Washington,
D.C. The mass of this standard is 0.453 592 43 kg.

In the study of kinetics, which involves forces, masses, and accelerations, we will often have to express
the mass m of a body in slugs, the weight W of which is given in pounds. We have

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 32.2 ft/s2).

Conversion from One System of Units to Another

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3.1.4 Equations of Motion

Steps:
Body: Define your system by isolating the body (or bodies) of interest. If a problem has multiple
bodies, you may have to draw multiple freebody diagrams and kinetic diagrams.

Axes: Draw an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, normal and tangential, or radial
and transverse).

Support Forces: Replace supports or constraints with appropriate forces (e.g., two
perpendicular forces for a pin, normal forces, friction forces).

Applied Forces and Body Forces: Draw any applied forces and body forces (also
sometimes called field forces) on your diagram (e.g., weight, magnetic forces, a known pulling
force).

Dimensions: Add any angles or distances that are important for solving the problem.

In statics problems, we deal with bodies in equilibrium, and the inertial term in Newton’s second
law is zero. For dynamics problems, this is not the case. We utilize the kinetic diagram to visualize this
term.

Body: This is the same body as in the free-body diagram; place this beside the free body diagram.

Inertial terms: Draw the ma term to be consistent with the coordinate system. Generally, draw
this term in different components (e.g., max and ma y or man and mat). If they are unknown quantities,
it is best to draw them in the positive directions as defined by your coordinates.

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Sample Problems:
1. A 200-lb block rests on a horizontal plane. Find the magnitude of the force P required to give the
block an acceleration of 10 ft/s2 to the right. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block
and the plane is μk = 0.25.

2. The two blocks shown start from rest. The horizontal plane and the pulley are
frictionless, and the pulley is assumed to be of negligible mass. Determine
the acceleration of each block and the tension in eachcord.

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3. The 12-lb block B starts from rest and slides on the 30-lb wedge A, which is supported by a horizontal
surface. Neglecting friction, determine (a) the acceleration of the wedge.