CE 313- MIDTERM EXAM REVIEWER

CHAPTER 1
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
1. MARITIME TRANSPORTATION IS THE MOST
EFFECTIVE MODE TO MOVE LARGE QUANTITIES OF
CARGO OVER LONG DISTANCES. MAIN MARITIME
ROUTES ARE COMPOSED OF OCEANS, COASTS, SEAS,
LAKES, RIVERS AND CHANNELS.
2. AIR TRANSPORTATION HAS BEEN ACCOMMODATING
GROWING QUANTITIES OF HIGH VALUE FREIGHT AND IS
PLAYING A GROWING ROLE IN GLOBAL LOGISTICS.
3. PIPELINES
PIPELINE ROUTES ARE PRACTICALLY UNLIMITED AS
THEY CAN BE LAID ON LAND OR UNDER WATER.
4. RAIL TRANSPORTATION
RAILWAYS ARE COMPOSED OF A TRACED PATH ON
WHICH ARE BOUND VEHICLES. THEY HAVE AN
AVERAGE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL CONSTRAINS LINKED TO
THE TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVES AND A LOW GRADIENT IS
REQUIRED, PARTICULARLY FOR FREIGHT.
5. ROAD TRANSPORTATION
ROAD INFRASTRUCTURES ARE LARGE CONSUMERS OF
SPACE WITH THE LOWEST LEVEL OF PHYSICAL
CONSTRAINTS AMONG TRANSPORTATION MODES.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORTS
ADVANTAGES: (LDSFSRFR)
Less Capital Outlay
Door to Door Service
Service in Rural Areas
Flexible Service
Suitable for short distance
Rapid speed
Feeder to other modes of transport
Road transport completely offer a freedom to road users
DISADVANTAGES: (SUS)
Seasonal Nature
Unsuitable for long distance and bulky traffic
Slow speed
SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (THT)
1. TRANSPORTATION PLANNING - THE PLANNING
METHODS ARE USED TO PREDICT HOW MANY TRIPS A
NEW DEVELOPMENT GENERATES, WHERE THOSE
DRIVERS ARE EXPECTED TO GO, WHAT FACILITIES OR
ROUTES THEY ARE EXPECTED TO TAKE, AND EVEN
WHAT MODE OF TRANSPORTATION THEY ARE LIKELY
TO CHOOSE.
2. HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN - THE GEOMETRIC
FEATURES CONSIDERED IN THIS SECTION INCLUDE THE
BASIC COMPONENTS THAT GUIDE HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT, INCLUDING CURVATURE AND
GRADES, AND ELEMENTS THAT FORM THE CROSS
SECTION OF THE HIGHWAY, INCLUDING LANES,
SHOULDERS, AND MEDIANS.
3. TRAFFIC OPERATIONS - THIS PART PRESENTS THE
TOOLS FOR EVALUATING THOSE FACILITY TYPES AND
METHODS FOR MEASURING THE IMPACT OF THESE
 FACILITIES FOR ALL USERS, INCLUDING NON-
MOTORIZED TRAVELLERS.
CHAPTER 2
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
Highway Engineering-an engineering discipline branching from civil
engineering which involves the design, construction and maintenance of
highway systems to ensure safe and effective transportation of people
and goods.
Brief History of Roads
ANCIENT ROADS
• First mode of transport was by foot and human pathways
• Invention of wheels in the Mesopotamian civilization
• 1,900 B.C. – earliest road from Assyrian empire
• 3,500 B.C. – roads with HARD SURFACE in Mesopotamia
• Stone surface road found in the Island of Crete
ROMAN ROADS
• Pioneers of road construction
• First to discover and introduce CEMENT
• Fundamentals of good road construction – good drainage,
good material, and good workmanship.
FRENCH ROADS
• Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) – a French engineer who
introduced new and cheaper methods of construction and
maintenance of stone roads. He is the Father of Modern Road
Building.
• Thomas Telford (1757-1834) – a Scottish engineer and founder
of Institute of Civil Engineer. Introduced some improvements in
the methods of Jerome Tresaguet.
BRITISH ROADS
• John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836) – a British engineer road
builder who introduced the Macadam road concept, which can
be considered as the first SCIENTIFIC ROAD CONSTRUCTION
METHOD.
MODERN ROADS
• Follow Macadam’s construction method. Use of bituminous
(asphalt) concrete and cement concrete are the most important
developments.
Highways in the Philippines
• 1900 – transportation of this country was by trail,
water, railroad, earth road and partially graveled
roads.
• American government – initiated the development of
the roadway system in the Philippines. Made use of
the Macadam roads to connect towns and provinces in
the country.
• 1950-1980: was considered as the automobile age
where road construction and improvement becomes the
priority of the government with a slogan saying “This
nation is on wheels”.
Three aspects in planning roads and highways:
1. Financial
2. Political
3. Technical
HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING
Three inputs in highway programming:
1. Economic
2. Financial
3. Political and Administration
Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Uses
A. Quantifiable Market Value
1. Cost of highway which refers to the following:
• Planning cost
• Right of way appropriation
• Construction cost
• Maintenance cost
• Operating cost
2. Cost benefits to highway users
• Vehicle operating cost (including congestion cost).
• Travel time savings (commercial).
• Motorist safety (economic cost accident).
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value
1. Cost benefits to highway users such as:
• Motorist safety
• Comfort and conversion
• Aesthetic from driving viewpoint
C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value
1. Cost benefits to highway users:
• Traveling time savings (non-commercial)
THE PLANNER
Characteristics of a Good Planner
• He should not be either partisan or advocate to
a particular solution.
• Clarifier
• Expediters
• Conciliators
• Impartial negotiators
• Good ethics
Public hearing – a meeting or forum wherein the public are given the
opportunity to be heard or to present their side of the matter.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Major Types of Roads
• Freeways
• Arterial Roads
• Collector Roads
• Local
1.FREEWAYS - 1are access-controlled divided highways. Most
freeways are four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways
widen to incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas.
2. EXPRESSWAYS - 1 they are superior type of highways and are
designed for high speeds (120 km/hr is common), high traffic volume
and safety. They are generally provided with grade separations at
intersections.
3. ARTERIALS - It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant
for through traffic usually on a continuous route. Main purpose is to
deliver traffic to freeways.
4. COLLECTOR STREETS - these are streets intended for collecting
and distributing traffic to and from local streets and also for providing
access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided on these
streets. There are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.
5. LOCAL STREET – a local street is the one which is primarily
intended for access to residence, business or abutting property. It does
not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted
parking and pedestrian movements.
PHILIPPINE CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Republic Act No. 917 (1953) - the first comprehensive reference to a
Road Classification System which is known as Philippine Highway Act.
•Executive Order (EO) No. 113, Series of 1955 - laid down the
criteria for classification of national roads and for conversion from
local roads to national roads.
•EO No. 124, Series of 1987 - Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH), through the Secretary, was given the power to
classify roads and highways and also to provide and authorize the
conversion of roads and highways from one category to another.
•In June 2009, a memorandum was approved by then Secretary
Hermogenes E. Ebdane, Jr. relative to the Department’s
criteria/guidelines on road functional classification. National roads
were classified in relation to its functionality to the local road network
into National Primary Arterial Road (which is further categorized into:
North-South Backbone, East-West Lateral, Other Roads of Strategic
Importance) and National Secondary Roads.
Current Classification System

1. National Primary Roads

2. National Secondary Roads
3. National Tertiary Roads
4. Provincial Roads
5. Municipal And City Roads
6. Barangay Roads
HIGHWAY SURVEYS AND LOCATION
Principles of Highway Location
1. Office study of existing information – the first phase in
any highway location study. The type and amount of data
collected and examined depend on the type of highway
being considered
Office Syudy of Existing Information
• Engineering – topography, geology, climate, and
traffic volumes
• Social and demographic – including land use and
zoning patterns
• Environmental – including types of wildlife,
location of recreational, historic and archeological
sites, possible effects of air, noise, and water
pollution
• Economic – including units costs for construction
and the trend of agricultural.
2. Reconnaisance survey – the object of this phase of the study is to
identify several feasible routes, each within a band of limited width of a
few hundred feet.
3. Preliminary location survey – during this phase of the study,
the positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as
possible by establishing all the control points and determining
preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each.
• Economic evaluation – factors usually taken into consideration
include road user costs, construction costs, maintenance costs,
road user benefits, and any dis-benefits
• Environmental evaluation – the construction of a highway at a
given location may result in significant changes in one or more
variables, which in turn may offset the equilibrium and result in
significant adverse effects on the environment.
4. Final location survey – it is a detailed layout of the selected
route. The horizontal and vertical alignments are determined,
and the positions of structures and drainage channels are
located. The method used is to set out the points of
intersections (PI) of the straight portions of the highway and fit
a suitable horizontal curve between these.

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS
SOURCES OF STANDARDS
• A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways, 1965
• A Policy on Design of Urban Highways and Arterials Streets,
1973
• Standard Specifications for Highways and Bridges, Revised
1972
• General Specifications for Roads and Bridges, 1976
FACTORS INFLUENCING HIGHWAY DESIGN
• Classification of Highways
• Design Vehicles and Turning Path
• Driver Performance and Human Factors
• Traffic Characteristics
• Traffic-Flow Relationships
• Highway Capacity
CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS
Design Type-based on major geometric features, helpful for highway
location and design procedure (e.g. expressways, conventional streets,
highways).
Route numbering-can characterize traffic operations and purpose they
serve within the network.
National Primary-2
National Secondary-3
Expressways-1
Administrative Classification-levels of government responsibility and
financing.
Road Network
Local Government
Local/Provincial/City Roads
National Government
Expressways
National Roads
Rotunda
KM
0036--- Distance from the km marker in luneta
P--------The initial of the next town/city. In this case, ‘P’ for Plaridel.
6--------The distance to the next town/city.
Arroyo Fountain-prominent landmark located at the heart of the city,
found in front of the old Iloilo Provincial Capitol or Casa Real.
The rotunda marks the kilometer zero of Panay Island.
Functional classification – character of provided service of highway.
Driving Task(pyramid)
Navigation-trip planning and route following
Guidance-road following in response to road and traffic condition
Control-steering and speed control
Traffic and vehicle data forms the major controls for highway design.
The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all
data relating to traffic such as traffic volume, character of traffic and
axle loading. Traffic information serves to establish the “loads” for
geometric highway design.
Volume
Average Daily Traffic- basic measure of traffic demand
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)-Number of vehicles in 24
hours for 365 days in both directions.
Design Hourly Volume (DHV)-Expected number of vehicles in one
hour in both directions.
Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)-Expected number of
vehicles in one hour in one direction.
TRAFFIC FLOW RELATIONSHIP
Volume Flow Rate- veh/hr
Speed-kph
Density-veh/km
Level of Service-is a qualitative measure used to relate the quality of
traffic service.
THE CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL HIGHWAY
HAS A LATITUDE OF VARIABLES TO CONSIDER
SUCH AS:
• The volume of traffic
• Character of the traffic
• Speed of the traffic
• Characteristics of motor vehicles and the driver
Travel Lane- A part of a roadway that is designated to be used by a
single line of vehicles to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic
conflicts.
Median Strip- When traffic volumes are quite heavy, travel lanes may
be divided into two parts by proving this.
Standard Width of Road
3m for one lane highway
3.6m for freeways and other major highway.
FOR A TWO LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS
A 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance between
commercial vehicles and is recommended for main highways.
FOR A COLLECTOR ROADWAY
A 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low volume traffic
including few trucks travelling thereon.
FOR LOCAL RURAL ROADWAY
The minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km/hr. design speed.
FOR URBAN ROADWAY
The minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is
allowed where space is limited.
Road Shoulders(verge)- That portion of the roadway between the edge
of the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope .
Width is defined as “extending from the edge of the surfacing to the
point where shoulder slope intersect the side slope ” .
The cross slope of the pavement is the slope of the pavement surface
measured transverse to the centerline of the highway.
The high point of a normal cross slope of a roadway is known as the
crown.
Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability
for earthworks .
The important sections of the cross slope are the hinge point , the
foreslope , and the toe of the slope.
The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and
may cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting in
loss of control of the vehicle.
The foreslope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle
speeds can be reduced and other recovery maneuvers taken to regain
control of the vehicle.
The toe of slope is rounded up in order to facilitate the safe movement
of vehicles from the foreslope to the backslope.
GUIDE FOR EARTH SLOPE DESIGN
• Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratio.
• Ordinary undisturbed earth fill – 1:1 ratio
• Rock cuts – 1:2 up to 1:4 ratio
• Slopes are lowered to facilitate plant growth which reduces erosion and
decrease maintenance cost.
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in
opposing directions.
A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an
errant vehicle from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating
the traveled ways for traffic in opposite directions.
Roadside barriers protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the
roadside. They also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from
the traffic stream.
Curb and gutters are concrete or asphalt structures used to collect
surface runoff from paved streets, parking lots, or other impervious
surfaces and convey it to a storm drain system or appropriate treatment
and/or infiltration system.
Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or
bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban
highways to delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways.
Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side
of a curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway. They
are sloped to prevent any hazard to traffic.
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp
curves and at sections with high fills.
Sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along
main or high-speed roads in either rural or urban areas.

CHAPTER 4
HIGHWAY DESIGN COMPONENTS(GDPE)
Geometric
Drainage
Pavement
Earthwworks
Geometric Design-Embraces the grade line, alignment, and the width of
the several component parts including intersections and roadside
facilities.
Geometric Design Considerations(SHVC)
Sight Distance
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Cross Sections
Sight Distance-The distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an
object ahead of time.
TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE
1. Passing Sight Distance
2. Stopping (Non-Passing Sight Distance)
3. Decision Sight Distance
4. Intersection Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance-The distance that drivers must be able to see
along the road ahead to safely and efficiently initiate and complete
passing maneuvers of slower vehicles on two-lane highways using the
lane normally reserved for opposing traffic.
Stopping Sight Distance-The minimum distance required to stop a
vehicle before it reaches a stationary object.
Decision Sight Distance-Distance required for a driver to initiate and
complete safely and efficiently the maneuver of an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information, source, or hazard.
Intersection Sight Distance-The corner sight distance available for a
vehicle approaching an intersection to see oncoming vehicles
approaching from crossing legs (the left and right).
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Horizontal Alignment-The corner sight distance available for a vehicle
approaching an intersection to see oncoming vehicles approaching from
crossing legs (the left and right).
Horizontal Alignment Design Element(RLSWG)
Radius of Curve-“The combination of design speed and maximum
superelevation controls the maximum degree of curvature.”
Length of Curve-
Superelevation-The tilting of roadway to help offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle goes around a curve. Along with friction they
are what keeps a vehicle from going off the road.
Widening on Curves-“The objective of widening along horizontal curve
is to make operating conditions on curves comparable to those on
tangents.”
General Controls
-Caution should be exercised in the use of compound curve. Where
topography or RROW restrictions make their use necessary, the radius
of the flatter curve should not be more than 50% greater than the radius
of the sharper curve. In other words, R1 < 1.5R2.
-etc.
Vertical Alignment-Specifies the elevation of points along a roadway.
Vertical Alignment design Elements and Considerations(GCVG)
Gradient-“For economy of vehicle operation, grades should be as flat as
possible.”
Critical Length of Grade-is used to indicate the maximum length of a
designated upgrade on which a loaded truck can operate without an
unreasonable reduction in speed.”
Vertical Curve
A. Crest vertical curves should be long enough to permit sight
distance.
B. Sag vertical curves-Headlight sight distance controls the length of
sag vertical curve.
General Controls
-A smooth grade line with gradual changes should be sought for in
preference to a line with numerous breaks/short length of grades.
-The “roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of profile should be avoided.
-A “broken-back” grade line should be avoided.
-etc.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should complement each other.
Both traffic operation and overall appearance of the facility should be
carefully considered in design.