Chapter 5: Link layer

Chapter 2
our goals:
Link Layer  understand principles behind link layer
services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
A note on the use of these ppt slides:
We’re making these slides freely available to all (faculty, students, readers). Computer  link layer addressing
They’re in PowerPoint form so you see the animations; and can add, modify,
and delete slides (including this one) and slide content to suit your needs. Networking: A Top  local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
They obviously represent a lot of work on our part. In return for use, we only
ask the following: Down Approach  instantiation, implementation of various link
 If you use these slides (e.g., in a class) that you mention their source
6th edition
(after all, we’d like people to use our book!)
 If you post any slides on a www site, that you note that they are adapted Jim Kurose, Keith Ross layer technologies
from (or perhaps identical to) our slides, and note our copyright of this
material.
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR

All material copyright 1996-2012

J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Link Layer 5-1 Link Layer 5-2

Link layer, LANs: outline Link layer: introduction

terminology:
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:  hosts and routers: nodes
5.2 error detection, MPLS  communication channels that global ISP

correction 5.6 data center connect adjacent nodes along

5.3 multiple access networking communication path: links
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a  wired links
web request  wireless links
5.4 LANs
 LANs
 addressing, ARP
 layer-2 packet: frame,
 Ethernet encapsulates datagram
 switches
 VLANS data-link layer has responsibility of
transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
Link Layer 5-3 Link Layer 5-4

1
Link layer: context Link layer services
 datagram transferred by transportation analogy:  framing, link access:
different link protocols over  trip from Princeton to Lausanne  encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
different links:  limo: Princeton to JFK  channel access if shared medium
 e.g., Ethernet on first link,  plane: JFK to Geneva  “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify
frame relay on  train: Geneva to Lausanne source, dest
intermediate links, 802.11  tourist = datagram • different from IP address!
on last link  transport segment =  reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
 each link protocol provides communication link  we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
different services  transportation mode = link  seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted
 e.g., may or may not layer protocol pair)
provide rdt over link  travel agent = routing  wireless links: high error rates
algorithm • Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

Link Layer 5-5 Link Layer 5-6

Link layer services (more) Where is the link layer implemented?

 in each and every host
 flow control:  link layer implemented in
 pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes “adaptor” (aka network
 error detection: interface card NIC) or on a
chip
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise. application

 receiver detects presence of errors:  Ethernet card, 802.11 transport

network cpu memory
card; Ethernet chipset link
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 implements link, physical
 error correction: layer controller
host
bus
(e.g., PCI)
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to link
retransmission  attaches into host’s system physical
physical
buses transmission
 half-duplex and full-duplex  combination of hardware,
 with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not
at same time software, firmware network adapter
card

Link Layer 5-7 Link Layer 5-8

2
Adaptors communicating Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
datagram datagram
5.2 error detection, MPLS
controller controller
correction 5.6 data center
5.3 multiple access networking
sending host receiving host
datagram protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
frame 5.4 LANs web request
 addressing, ARP
 sending side:  receiving side
 Ethernet
 encapsulates datagram in  looks for errors, rdt,
frame flow control, etc  switches
 adds error checking bits,  extracts datagram, passes  VLANS
rdt, flow control, etc. to upper layer at
receiving side
Link Layer 5-9 Link Layer 5-10

Error detection Parity checking

EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors
• Error detection not 100% reliable!
• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

0 0

Link Layer 5-11 Link Layer 5-12

3
Internet checksum (review) Cyclic redundancy check
 more powerful error-detection coding
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet
(note: used at transport layer only)  view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
sender: receiver:  goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 treat segment contents  compute checksum of  <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
as sequence of 16-bit received segment  receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:
integers  check if computed
error detected!
 checksum: addition (1’s checksum equals checksum  can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
complement sum) of field value:  widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi, ATM)
segment contents  NO - error detected
 sender puts checksum  YES - no error detected.
value into UDP But maybe errors
checksum field nonetheless?

Link Layer 5-13 Link Layer 5-14

CRC example Link layer, LANs: outline

want:
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
D.2r XOR R = nG MPLS
equivalently: 5.2 error detection,
correction 5.6 data center
D.2r = nG XOR R networking
equivalently: 5.3 multiple access
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
if we divide D.2r by web request
G, want remainder R 5.4 LANs
to satisfy:  addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
D . 2r  switches
R = remainder[ ]
G  VLANS

Link Layer 5-15 Link Layer 5-16

4
Multiple access links, protocols Multiple access protocols
two types of “links”:
 single shared broadcast channel
 point-to-point
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
 PPP for dial-up access
interference
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
 collision if node receives two or more signals at the same
 broadcast (shared wire or medium) time
 old-fashioned Ethernet
 upstream HFC
 802.11 wireless LAN multiple access protocol
 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share
channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
 no out-of-band channel for coordination

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)

Link Layer 5-17 Link Layer 5-18

An ideal multiple access protocol MAC protocols: taxonomy

three broad classes:
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
 channel partitioning
desiderata:  divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code)
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R.  allocate piece to node for exclusive use
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average  random access
rate R/M  channel not divided, allow collisions
3. fully decentralized:  “recover” from collisions
• no special node to coordinate transmissions  “taking turns”
• no synchronization of clocks, slots  nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer
turns
4. simple

Link Layer 5-19 Link Layer 5-20

5
Random access protocols Slotted ALOHA
 when node has packet to send assumptions: operation:
 transmit at full channel data rate R.  all frames same size  when node obtains fresh
 no a priori coordination among nodes  time divided into equal size frame, transmits in next slot
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”, slots (time to transmit 1  if no collision: node can send
 random access MAC protocol specifies: frame) new frame in next slot
 how to detect collisions  nodes start to transmit  if collision: node retransmits
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed only slot beginning frame in each subsequent
retransmissions)  nodes are synchronized slot with prob. p until
 examples of random access MAC protocols:  if 2 or more nodes transmit success
 slotted ALOHA in slot, all nodes detect
 ALOHA collision
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Link Layer 5-21 Link Layer 5-22

Slotted ALOHA Slotted ALOHA: efficiency

node 1 1 1 1 1

efficiency: long-run  max efficiency: find p* that

node 2 2 2 2
fraction of successful slots maximizes
node 3 3 3 3 (many nodes, all with many Np(1-p)N-1
frames to send)  for many nodes, take limit
C E C S E C E S S of Np*(1-p*)N-1 as N goes
Pros: Cons:  suppose: N nodes with to infinity, gives:
many frames to send, each max efficiency = 1/e = .37
 single active node can  collisions, wasting slots transmits in slot with
continuously transmit at  idle slots probability p
full rate of channel

!
 nodes may be able to  prob that given node has at best: channel
 highly decentralized: only detect collision in less success in a slot = p(1- used for useful
slots in nodes need to be p)N-1 transmissions 37%
in sync than time to transmit
packet  prob that any node has a of time!
 simple success = Np(1-p)N-1
 clock synchronization
Link Layer 5-23 Link Layer 5-24

6
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA Pure ALOHA efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .
 when frame first arrives P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0]
 transmit immediately
 collision probability increases: = p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
 frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0- = p . (1-p)2(N-1)
1,t0+1]
… choosing optimum p and then letting n

= 1/(2e) = .18

even worse than slotted Aloha!

Link Layer 5-25 Link Layer 5-26

CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes

CSMA: listen before transmit:  collisions can still occur:

propagation delay means
if channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame two nodes may not hear
 if channel sensed busy, defer transmission each other’s
transmission
 collision: entire packet
 human analogy: don’t interrupt others! transmission time
wasted
 distance & propagation
delay play role in in
determining collision
probability

Link Layer 5-27 Link Layer 5-28

7
CSMA/CD (collision detection) CSMA/CD (collision detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA spatial layout of nodes
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage
 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare
transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist

Link Layer 5-29 Link Layer 5-30

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm CSMA/CD efficiency

1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another  Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN
from network layer, transmission while  ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
creates frame transmitting, aborts and
2. If NIC senses channel sends jam signal
idle, starts frame 5. After aborting, NIC 1
efficiency 
transmission. If NIC enters binary (exponential) 1  5t prop /t trans
senses channel busy, backoff:  efficiency goes to 1
waits until channel idle,  after mth collision, NIC  as tprop goes to 0
then transmits. chooses K at random  as ttrans goes to infinity
3. If NIC transmits entire from {0,1,2, …, 2m-1}.
NIC waits K·512 bit  better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap,
frame without detecting
times, returns to Step 2 decentralized!
another transmission,
NIC is done with frame !  longer backoff interval
with more collisions
Link Layer 5-31 Link Layer 5-32

8
“Taking turns” MAC protocols “Taking turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols: polling:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high load  master node “invites”
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N slave nodes to transmit data
bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node! in turn poll
 typically used with
random access MAC protocols “dumb” slave devices master
 efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize  concerns:
data
channel
 polling overhead
 high load: collision overhead
 latency
“taking turns” protocols  single point of slaves
look for best of both worlds! failure (master)

Link Layer 5-33 Link Layer 5-34

“Taking turns” MAC protocols Cable access network

Internet frames,TV channels, control transmitted
token passing: downstream at different frequencies
T
 control token passed cable headend
from one node to next
sequentially. CMTS
…
 token message (nothing splitter cable
 concerns: to send) cable modem … modem
termination system
 token overhead T
ISP
 latency upstream Internet frames, TV control, transmitted
upstream at different frequencies in time slots
 single point of failure
(token)  multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels
 single CMTS transmits into channels
 multiple 30 Mbps upstream channels
data  multiple access: all users contend for certain upstream
Link Layer 5-35
channel time slots (others assigned)

9
Cable access network Summary of MAC protocols
cable headend MAP frame for
Interval [t1, t2]

Downstream channel i
 channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
CMTS  Time Division, Frequency Division
Upstream channel j
 random access (dynamic),
 ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
t1 t2 Residences with cable modems
 carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem
in others (wireless)
minislots request frames upstream data frames
 CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
DOCSIS: data over cable service interface spec  CSMA/CA used in 802.11
 FDM over upstream, downstream frequency channels  taking turns
 TDM upstream: some slots assigned, some have contention  polling from central site, token passing
 downstream MAP frame: assigns upstream slots  bluetooth, FDDI, token ring
 request for upstream slots (and data) transmitted
random access (binary backoff) in selected slots
Link Layer 5-37 Link Layer 5-38

Link layer, LANs: outline MAC addresses and ARP

5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:  32-bit IP address:
5.2 error detection, MPLS  network-layer address for interface
correction 5.6 data center  used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
5.3 multiple access networking  MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a  function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one interface to
5.4 LANs web request another physically-connected interface (same network, in IP-
addressing sense)
 addressing, ARP
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC
 Ethernet ROM, also sometimes software settable
 switches  e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
 VLANS
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
(each “number” represents 4 bits)

Link Layer 5-39 Link Layer 5-40

10
 LAN addresses and ARP LAN addresses (more)
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
 MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD (to assure uniqueness)
 analogy:
 MAC address: like Social Security Number
LAN  IP address: like postal address
(wired or adapter
wireless)  MAC flat address ➜ portability
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0  can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address not portable
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
 address depends on IP subnet to which node is
attached

Link Layer 5-41 Link Layer 5-42

ARP: address resolution protocol ARP protocol: same LAN

Question: how to determine  A wants to send datagram
interface’s MAC address, to B
 B’s MAC address not in  A caches (saves) IP-to-
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node (host, A’s ARP table. MAC address pair in its
router) on LAN has table  A broadcasts ARP query ARP table until
137.196.7.78
 IP/MAC address packet, containing B's IP information becomes old
mappings for some LAN address (times out)
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
nodes:  dest MAC address = FF-FF-  soft state: information that
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14 < IP address; MAC address; TTL> FF-FF-FF-FF times out (goes away)
unless refreshed
 TTL (Time To Live):  all nodes on LAN receive
LAN time after which address ARP query  ARP is “plug-and-play”:
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 mapping will be  B receives ARP packet,  nodes create their ARP
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
forgotten (typically 20 replies to A with its (B's) tables without intervention
from net administrator
min) MAC address
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
137.196.7.88
 frame sent to A’s MAC
address (unicast)
Link Layer 5-43 Link Layer 5-44

11
 Addressing: routing to another LAN Addressing: routing to another LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R  A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
 focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame)  A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram
 assume A knows B’s IP address
 assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?) MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
 assume A knows R’s MAC address (how?) IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B A B
R R
111.111.111.111 111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222 222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220 222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221 111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-45 Link Layer 5-46

Addressing: routing to another LAN Addressing: routing to another LAN

 frame sent from A to R  R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP  R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111 MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111 IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222 IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP IP IP Eth
Eth Eth Eth Phy
Phy Phy Phy

A B A B
R R
111.111.111.111 111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222 222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220 222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221 111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-47 Link Layer 5-48

12
Addressing: routing to another LAN Addressing: routing to another LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B  R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame  R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP src: 111.111.111.111 IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP IP
IP Eth Eth
Eth Phy Phy
Phy

A B A B
R R
111.111.111.111 111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222 222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220 222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221 111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-49 Link Layer 5-50

Link layer, LANs: outline Ethernet

“dominant” wired LAN technology:
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:  cheap $20 for NIC

5.2 error detection, MPLS  first widely used LAN technology

correction 5.6 data center  simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM

5.3 multiple access networking  kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps

protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a

5.4 LANs web request
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

Link Layer 5-51 Link Layer 5-52

13
Ethernet: physical topology Ethernet frame structure
 bus: popular through mid 90s
 all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each
other) sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
 star: prevails today network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
type
 active switch in center
dest. source data
preamble address address CRC
 each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes (payload)

do not collide with each other)

preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Link Layer 5-53 Link Layer 5-54

Ethernet frame structure (more) Ethernet: unreliable, connectionless

 addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC addresses
 if adapter receives frame with matching destination  connectionless: no handshaking between sending and
address, or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP packet), it receiving NICs
passes data in frame to network layer protocol  unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or nacks
 otherwise, adapter discards frame to sending NIC
 type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP but  data in dropped frames recovered only if initial
others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk) sender uses higher layer rdt (e.g., TCP), otherwise
 CRC: cyclic redundancy check at receiver dropped data lost
 error detected: frame is dropped  Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD wth
binary backoff
type
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)

Link Layer 5-55 Link Layer 5-56

14
802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical layers Link layer, LANs: outline
 many different Ethernet standards
 common MAC protocol and frame format 5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
 different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps, 5.2 error detection, MPLS
10G bps correction 5.6 data center
 different physical layer media: fiber, cable 5.3 multiple access networking
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
5.4 LANs web request
application
MAC protocol  addressing, ARP
and frame format
transport  Ethernet
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link
 switches
100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical  VLANS

copper (twister fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer
Link Layer 5-57 Link Layer 5-58

Ethernet switch Switch: multiple simultaneous transmissions

 link-layer device: takes an active role
 store, forward Ethernet frames  hosts have dedicated, direct A
connection to switch
 examine incoming frame’s MAC address,  switches buffer packets C’ B
selectively forward frame to one-or-more
 Ethernet protocol used on each
outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on incoming link, but no collisions;
6 1 2
segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment full duplex 4
5 3
 transparent  each link is its own collision
B’ C
 hosts are unaware of presence of switches domain
 plug-and-play, self-learning  switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’
can transmit simultaneously, A’
 switches do not need to be configured without collisions switch with six interfaces
(1,2,3,4,5,6)

Link Layer 5-59 Link Layer 5-60

15
 Switch forwarding table Switch: self-learning Source: A
Dest: A’

A A A’
Q: how does switch know A’ A  switch learns which hosts
can be reached through
reachable via interface 4, B’ B which interfaces C’ B
C’
reachable via interface 5?  when frame received, 6 1 2
 A: each switch has a switch 6 1 2 switch “learns”
table, each entry: location of sender: 5 4 3
5 4 3 incoming LAN segment
 (MAC address of host, interface to B’ C
 records sender/location
reach host, time stamp) B’ C
pair in switch table
 looks like a routing table!
A’
A’
Q: how are entries created, switch with six interfaces MAC addr interface TTL
maintained in switch table? (1,2,3,4,5,6) A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)
 something like a routing protocol?

Link Layer 5-61 Link Layer 5-62

Self-learning, forwarding: example Source: A

Dest: A’
Interconnecting switches
A A A’
 switches can be connected together
 frame destination, A’,
B
locaton unknown: flood C’
S4

 destination A location 6 1 2 S1
S3
S2
known: selectively send A A’
5 4 3
A
F
D I
C
on just one link B’ C
B
G H
E
A’ A

A’
Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know to
MAC addr interface TTL forward frame destined to F via S4 and S3?
A 1 60 switch table  A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in
(initially empty)
A’ 4 60 single-switch case!)
Link Layer 5-63 Link Layer 5-64

16
Self-learning multi-switch example Institutional network
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C

mail server
S4 to external
network
S1 web server
S3 router
A S2
F
D I
B C
E G H IP subnet

 Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S1, S2, S3, S4

Link Layer 5-65 Link Layer 5-66

Switches vs. routers VLANs: motivation

application
transport
both are store-and-forward: consider:
datagram network
 routers: network-layer frame link  CS user moves office to
devices (examine network- physical link frame EE, but wants connect to
layer headers) physical CS switch?
 switches: link-layer devices  single broadcast domain:
(examine link-layer switch
headers)  all layer-2 broadcast
network datagram traffic (ARP, DHCP,
both have forwarding tables: link frame Computer
unknown location of
physical Science
Computer
destination MAC
 routers: compute tables Electrical
Engineering
Engineering
address) must cross
using routing algorithms, IP application
addresses entire LAN
transport
 switches: learn forwarding network  security/privacy,
table using flooding, link efficiency issues
learning, MAC addresses physical

Link Layer 5-67 Link Layer 5-68

17
 port-based VLAN: switch ports
VLANs grouped (by switch management
software) so that single physical
Chapter 2: Summary
switch ……  principles behind data link layer services:
Virtual Local
Area Network
1

2
7

8
9

10
15

16
 error detection, correction
switch(es) supporting  sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
VLAN capabilities can … …  link layer addressing
be configured to Electrical Engineering Computer Science  instantiation and implementation of various link
define multiple virtual (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
layer technologies
LANS over single … operates as multiple virtual switches  Ethernet
physical LAN
 switched LANS, VLANs
infrastructure. 1

2
7

8
9

10
15

16
 virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS
 synthesis: a day in the life of a web request
… …

Electrical Engineering Computer Science

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-16)

Link Layer 5-69 Link Layer 5-70

Chapter 5: let’s take a breath

 journey down protocol stack complete (except
PHY)
 solid understanding of networking principles,
practice
 ….. could stop here …. but lots of interesting
topics!
 wireless
 multimedia
 security
 network management

Link Layer 5-71

18