RESPIRATION

Respiration is very complex process and is different from simple combustion and breathing.
It is an energy releasing process. Thus, respiration is the process of oxidation- reduction
wherein the organic substances are degraded to release energy which is incorporated in
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Respiration is of two types
(1) Respiration in which free oxygen is utilized is known as aerobic respiration.
(2) While the respiration in absence of free oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
Amount of energy released in case of aerobic respiration is much more as compared to
anaerobic respiration.
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
 Plants take in oxygen for respiration and give out carbon dioxide, but plants have no
specialized organs s for gaseous exchange as in animals. So, in plants diffusing gases do not
travel long distances.
 They have stomata and lenticels for gas exchange.
Following are the reasons why plants can get along without respiratory organs:
1. Every part of the plant takes care of its own gas-exchange needs and there is very little
transport of gases from one part of the plant to another.
2. Plants do not have great demands for gas exchange, the rate of respiration is far lower than
that of animals.
3. The distance for which the gases diffuse, even in large, bulky plants is not great as living
cells in a plant are located quite close to the surface of the plant
Types of Respiration:
 Aerobic Respiration: When complete oxidation of food takes place in presence of molecular
oxygen and entire carbon is released as CO₂ it is called aerobic respiration.

 Anaerobic Respiration: When oxidation of food material does not require molecular oxygen
or it occurs in absence of molecular oxygen, its Anaerobic respiration or 1, it is called
anaerobic respiration. fermentation may take place in bacteria, some plants, RBCs body
When oxygen is not available, then food is incompletely oxidized into some organic
compounds like ethanol, acetic acid or lactic acid.
 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration starts with glycolysis followed by Citric acid cycle
and then electro transport system, both occurring in the mitochondria
a. Glycolysis - Occurs in cytoplasm.
b. TCA cycle or Citric acid cycle. (in matrix of mitochondria)
c. Electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation
GLYCOLYSIS
The term glycolysis has originated from the Greek words, glycos for sugar, and lysis for
splitting. The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J.
Parnas, and is often referred to as the EMP pathway. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of
the cell and is present in all living organisms.
• GLYCOLYSIS is the sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts
glucose into pyruvate with simultaneous production on of ATP.
• In this oxidative process, 1mol of glucose is partially oxidised to 2 moles of pyruvate.
• This major pathway of glucose metabolism occurs in the cytosol of all cell.
• This unique pathway occurs aerobically as well as anaerobically & doesn’t involve
molecular oxygen.
• It also includes formation of Lactate from Pyruvate.
• The glycolytic sequence of reactions differs from species to species only in the
mechanism of its regulation & in the subsequent metabolic fate of the pyruvate
formed.
• In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to Citric acid cycle.
• Glycolysis is the central pathway for Glucose catabolism.

TWO PHASES OF GLYCOLYSIS:

Glycolysis leads to breakdown of 6-C glucose into two molecules of 3-C pyruvate with the
enzyme catalysed reactions being bifurcated or categorized into 2 phases:
 Phase 1- preparatory phase
 Phase 2- payoff phase.
Phase 1- preparatory phase
 It consists of the 1st 5 steps of glycolysis in which the glucose is enzymatically
phosphorylated by ATP to yield Fructose-1,6-biphosphate.
 This fructuse-1,6-biphosphate is then split in half to yield 2 molecules of 3-carbon
containing Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/ dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
 Thus, the first phase results in cleavage of the hexose chain.
 This cleavage requiresan investment of 2 ATP molecules to activate the glucose mole
and prepare it for its cleavage into 3-carbon compound.

Phase 2- payoff phase

 This phase constitutes the last 5 reactions of Glycolysis.
 This phase marks the release of ATP molecules during conversion of Glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphtae to 2 moles of Pyruvate.
 Here 4 moles of ADP are phosphorylated to ATP. Although 4 moles of ATP are
formed, the net result is only 2 moles of ATP per mole of Glucose oxidized, since 2
moles of ATP are utilized in Phase 1.

Glycolysis pathway has dual functions:

1. It degrades glucose to generate ATP molecules

2. It forms the building blocks for the synthetic reactions like formation of fatty acids.

Glycolysis is regulated by two factors:

1. Enzymatic control: there are several enzymes whose concentration can either inhibit or
stimulate the glycolysis process; these are:

a. Hexokinase- It is an allosteric enzyme which catalyses the first step of

glycolysis. It is inhibited the its product (glucose-6-phosphate). High concentration of
glucose-6-phosphate signals the cell for no longer requirement of glucose for energy or other
functions. This is known as feedback inhibition

b. Phosphofructose kinase-1 -

 High level of ATP allosterically inhibits the enzyme by inhibiting its affinity for its
substrate (fructose-6-phosphate).
 AMP works with opposite effect of that of ATP; as it increases the enzymatic activity
during low energy level. This is known as allosteric inhibition.
 c. Pyruvate kinase: -

 During high energy levels, The ATP allosterically inhibits the enzyme.
 Alanine (synthesized from pyruvate in muscles) also inhibit the enzyme. When
glycolysis increases, the rate of fructose-1,6 bisphosphate activates the pyruvate
kinase. This is known as feedforward stimulation.

2. Hormonal control: -

 High concentration of Insulin activates the glycolysis

 High concentration of Glucogen depresses the glycolysis

Significance of glycolysis

1. It is the basic route for the glucose metabolism

2. It also provides pathway for the metabolism of fructose and galactose
3. It could generate ATP molecules in the absence of oxygen
4. It generates building blocks for the biosynthetic pathway.
5. In RBCs, it supplies 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate which is required by Hb to perform its
functions.

ENERGY YIELD IN GLYCOLYSIS:

STEP REACTION CONSUMPTION of GAIN of ATP

NO ATP

1 Glucose to glucose-6- 1 -
phosphate

3 Fructose-6-phosphate to 1 -

fructose-1,6-biphosphate
7 1,3-diphosphoglycerate to - 1*2=2

3-phosphoglycerate

10 Phosphoenolpyruvate to - 1*2=2
pyruvate
Total= 2 Total= 4

Net gain of ATP=4-2= 2

Fig: Glycolysis process
Kreb's cycle: This takes place in presence of oxygen in mitochondria of cells wherein
pyruvic acid is degraded further to form carbon-dioxide, water and energy. The complete
oxidation of glucose is represented as follows:
Glucose + oxygen➡ Carbon-dioxide Water + Energy
C6H12O6 + 602 ➡6CO₂+ 6H2O + 673 kcal
In this process, hydrogen is removed from the substrate and electrons released are transferred
to generate ATP. The formation of ATP in mitochondria due to oxidation is called oxidative
phosphorylation. The energy produced during respiration is incorporated in the form of ATP.
In ATP it is stored in high energy phosphate bond which after breaking releases large amount
of energy.

Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

Fermentation is an anaerobic process in which energy can be released from

glucose even if oxygen is not available.

It is the respiration in the absence of oxygen and takes place in microorganism, bacteria and
also yeasts. It does not need mitochondria. During this process many toxic substances are
formed. It is incomplete oxidation and releases about 1/30th of energy as released in aerobic
respiration. The ultimate products of this respiration are carbon-dioxide, ethyl alcohol and
several acids like lactic acid etc.

Steps Involved in Lactic Acid Fermentation:

 The glucose or 6-carbon molecule is broken down into Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate,

and then to 3-Phosphoglyceric acid.
 During this, NAD+ is converted into NADH+H+.
 The 3-Phosphoglyceric acid forms Phosphoenol pyruvic acid, which later forms the
Pyruvic acid.
  Net 2 ATP molecules are formed in this process (glycolysis).
 This Pyruvic acid is reduced to Lactic acid with the help of reducing agent
NADH+H+, which reoxidises to NAD+.
 This process produces two lactate/lactic acid molecules from two pyruvate/pyruvic
acid molecules. This reaction happens in the presence of the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase.

Alcoholic Fermentation:

Alcoholic fermentation, also called ethanol fermentation, is the anaerobic respiration pathway
in yeasts where sugars are used as a substrate to form ethanol and carbon dioxide.
The reaction occurring in alcoholic fermentation can be summarised as follows –
The process of alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into 2 moles of ethanol
and 2 moles of carbon dioxide, thus producing 2 moles of ATP in the process.
The process of alcoholic fermentation is a complex process. As the reaction proceeds, various
biochemical, physicochemical, chemical processes occur, hence turning grape juice into vine.

Fermentation of Acetic Acid:

To produce acetic acid, we need to follow two processes:

1. We must use the yeast that converts glucose or sugar to alcohol.

 2. We use acetobacter and other bacteria to convert ethyl alcohol to acetic acid.

3. To oxidise ethanol to acetic acid, a massive amount of oxygen comes to need.

To convert ethanol to acetic acid, oxidation steps take place. These steps convert to
acetaldehyde and then acetic acid. So, the ethanol produced earlier undergoes conversion to
form acetaldehyde in the first step. The first step takes place when NAD and NADP are
present. Then the second step consists of converting acetaldehyde to form acetic acid.

In this natural method of fermentation, the production of almost one litre of twelve percent
acetic acid occurs. This formation of one litre is from 1 litre of twelve percent alcohol.