Show understanding of hashing algorithm

a mathematical formula used to perform a calculation on the key field of the record, the
result of the calculation gives the address where the record should be found

Write a record

chooses a suitable number and divides this number by the value in the key field

Remainder from this division then identifies the address in the file for storage of the
record

Suitable numbers: prime numbers of a similar size to the expected size of the file

Reading a record from a file using direct access

the address of the location to read from is calculated using the hashing algorithm and
the key field of the record stored there is read

But before using that record, the key field must be checked against the original key
field to ensure that they match

If key fields does not match, then the following records needs to be read until a
match is found (open hash) or the overflow area needs to be searched for a match
(closed hash)

Floating-Point Numbers, Representation, and Manipulation

Describe the format of binary floating-point real numbers

A binary number written in the form M x 2^E (where M is the Mantissa and E is the
exponent)

A floating-point number consists of three parts:

the sign bit

the mantissa = the fractional part of a floating point number

the exponent = the power of 2 that the mantissa (fractional part) is raised to in a
floating-point number

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 Convert binary floating-point into denary and vice versa

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 Normalise floating-point numbers

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 A method to improve the precision of binary floating-point numbers: positive numbers
should be in the format 0.1 and negative numbers in the format 1.0

Positive Number

Mantissa must start with 0.1

The bits in Mantissa are shifted to the left until we arrive at 0.1; for each left, the
exponent is reduced by 1

Negative Number

Mantissa must start with 1.0

The bits
bis in the mantissa are shifted until we arrive at 1.0; again, the exponent must be
changed to reflect the number of shifts

Show understanding of the consequences of a binary representation only being an

approximation to the real number it represents (in certain cases)

The accuracy of a number can be increased by increasing the number of bits used in the
Mantissa

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 The range of numbers can be increased by increasing the number of bits used in the
exponent

Accuracy and range will always be a trade-off between Mantissa and Exponent size

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 Show understanding that binary representation can give rise to rounding errors

Overflow Error

If a calculation produces a number which exceeds the maximum possible value that
can be stored in the Mantissa and Exponent, an Overflow error will be produced

This could occur when trying to divide by a very small number or even 0

Underflow Error

When dividing by a very large number this can lead to a result which is less than the
smallest number that can be stored

One of the issues of suing normalised binary floating-point numbers is the inability to store
the number 0

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 This is because the Mantissa must be 0.1 or 1.0 which does not allow for a 0 value

14| Communication and Internet Technologies

Protocols
Show understanding of why a protocol is essential for communication between computers

a set of rules governing communication across a network: the rules are agreed by both sender
and recipient

all data is sent and received using the same rules and format

allows communication between devices operating on different platforms

Show understanding of how protocol implementation can be viewed as a stack, where each
layer has its own functionality

A protocol suite can be represented as a layered structure

Each layer operates independently

Each layer can only communicate with an adjacent layer

The layers are numbered and sit one above each other, and can therefore be thought
of as a stack

The output from one layer provides the input for the next layer

Each layer interacts only with the layer directly above/below it, and at the bottom of
the stack

The Physical layer transmit data between the source and destination devices

Show understanding of the TCP/IP protocol suite

a layered stack with 4 layers

uses a set of protocols for transmission of data transport control protocol with internet
protocol

TCP

To only allow data to be sent when the line is idle

To detect a collision on the network

To halt transmission when a collision occurs

IP

Allows applications to exchange data

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