Module-1

Basics of Networking:
Introduction, Network Types, Layered network models

Emergence of IoT:

Introduction, Evolution of IoT, Enabling IoTand the Complex

Interdependence of Technologies, IoT Networking Components.

Textbook 1: Chapter 1- 1.1 to 1.3 Chapter 4 – 4.1 to 4.4

Introduction 1.1
A major IoT applications involves sensing in one form or the other. Sensing forms the
first step. Incidentally, actuation forms the final step in the whole operation of IoT application
deployment. Sensing and actuation is based on the process of transduction. Transduction is
the process of energy conversion from one form to another. A transducer is a physical means
of enabling transduction.Transducers take energy in any form (for which it is designed)—
electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound, and others—and convert it into another, which
may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound, and others. For example, in a public
announcement (PA) system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical
signals, which is amplified by an amplifier system (a process). Finally, a loudspeaker (output
device) outputs this into audible sounds by converting the amplified electrical signals back.

Network Types 1.2

These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of anetwork setup and
provide insights into the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.Computer
networks are classified according to various parameters:
1) Type of connection,
2) Physical topology, and
3) Reach of the network.

1.2.1 Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, Computer networks are
of two type
1. Point-to-point and
2. Point-to-multipoint.

1. Point-to-point:
  Point-to-point connections are used to establishdirect connections between two hosts.
 Day-to-day systems such as a remote control for an air conditioner or television are a
point-to-point connection, where the connection has the whole channel dedicated to it
only.
2. Point-to-multipoint:
 In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the same link.
 This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many connection type.
 Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony.
 The channel is shared between the various hosts.

1.2.2 Physical topology

 Physical topology Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths
between the hosts are connected, computer networks can have the following four broad
topologies—
1. Star 2. Mesh 3. Bus 4. Ring

1. Star Topology
In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub. The
hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only do so through the central
hub. The hub acts as the network traffic exchange. For large-scale systems, the hub,
essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle all the simultaneous traffic flowing through
it. This topology is cheaper and easier to set up.
Advantages
 The main advantages of the star topology are easy installation,
 The ease of fault identification within the network.
 If the central hub remains uncompromised,
 Link failures between a host and the hub do not have a big effect on the network,
except for the host that is affected.
Disadvantages
 Danger of a single point of failure. If the hub fails, the whole network fails.

2. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link (in a
point-to-point manner). This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n(n−1)/2
dedicated full duplex links between the hosts.
Advantages
 The first significant advantage is the robustness and resilience of the system. Even if a
link is downor broken, the network is still fully functional as there remain other
pathwaysfor the traffic to flow through.
 The second advantage is the security and privacyof the traffic as the data is only seen by
the intended recipients and not by allmembers of the network.
 The third advantage is the reduced data load on a single host, as every host in this
network takes care of its traffic load.
Disadvantages
The massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive.

3. Bus Topology
 A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection. A backbonecable or bus serves
as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts. The hosts are connected to the main bus
employing drop lines or taps.

Advantages
 The main advantage of this topology is the ease of installation.
 The bus topologyhas a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable)
can be
 used for an organization.
 Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to the bus, making
installation very easy and cheap.

Disadvantages
 Restrictionon the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be
simultaneouslyconnected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus.
 The difficulty in fault localization within the network.

(c) Bus Topology

4. Ring Topology
 A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection. Here, each host is
configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with its two immediate neighboring
hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each host. The repetition of this system forms a
ring. The repeaters at each host capture the incoming signal intended for other hosts,
regenerates the bit stream, and passes it onto the next repeater.
Advantages
 Fault identification and set up of the ring topology is quite simple and straightforward.
Disadvantages
 The high probability of a single point of failure. If even one repeater fails, the whole
network goes down.

(d) Ring Topology

1.2.3 Network reachability

Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
1. Personal area networks,
2. Local area networks,
3. Wide area networks,
4. Metropolitan area networks.

(i) Personal Area Networks (PAN):

PANs, isrestricted to individual usage. Example of wireless headphones, wireless
speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a
house. Generally, PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power
technologies such as Bluetooth. The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters
to a few meters.
(ii) Local Area Networks (LAN):
A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a singlenetwork through wired or wireless
connections. LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses. Typically, a few
leased lines connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole organization or a
campus; the lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN enabling hosts.
The hosts are much more in number than the actual direct lines to the Internet to access the
web from within the organization. This also allows the organization to define various access
control policies for web access within its hierarchy. The LANs range from 100Mbps to 1000
Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used network components in a LAN are
servers, hubs, routers, switches, terminals, and computers.
(iii) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):
The reachability of a MAN lies betweenthat of a LAN and a WAN. Typically, MANs
connect various organizations or buildings within a given geographic location or city. Example
of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to various
organizations within a city. As MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even
single organizations. Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and
cables. MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels.
(iv) Wide Area Networks (WAN):
WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations. They are restricted within the
boundaries of a state or country. The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s
data rate. WANs connecting two LANs or MANs. Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs
tend to have more errors and noise during transmission and are very costly to maintain. The
fault tolerance of WANs arealso generally low.

1.3 Layered Network Models

The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, be it a large-scale
or a small-scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific layers. Two of the most
commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models are-
Open systems interconnection developed by the International Organization of
1. Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
2. Internet protocol suite.
1.3.1 OSI Model
The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networkedcommunication
device into seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks based on the underlying
technology and internal structure of the hosts. These seven layers, from bottom-up, are as
follows:
1) Physical layer,
2) Data link layer,
3) Network layer,
4) Transport layer,
5) Session layer,
6) Presentation layer,
7) Application layer.
The major highlights of each of these layers are explained in this section.
(i) Physical Layer:
 This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of theOSI model.
 The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical
operations of the host at the actual physical level.
 These operations include or deal with issues relating to signal generation, signal
transfer, voltages,the layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances, and signal
loss.
 This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh, bus, or
ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and bit rate
controloperations.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as asymbol.

(ii) Data Link Layer:

 This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model.
 The datalink layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and termination of the
connection between two hosts, and the detection and correction of errors during
communication between two or more connected hosts.
 IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers:
 Medium access control (MAC),
 Logical link control (LLC).
 MAC is responsible for access control and permissionsfor connecting networked
devices; whereas LLC is mainly tasked with errorchecking, flow control, and frame
synchronization. The protocol data unitassociated with this layer is referred to as a
frame.

(iii) Network Layer:

 This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model.
 It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to differentnetworks
through logical paths called virtual circuits.
 These logical pathsmay pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before reaching
the actualdestination host. The primary tasks of this layer include addressing,
sequencingof packets, congestion control, error handling, and Internetworking.
 The protocoldata unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.

(iv) Transport Layer:

 This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
 Thetransport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow control toachieve
a transparent transfer of data between hosts.
 This layer is responsible forkeeping track of acknowledgments during variable-length
data transfer betweenhosts.
 In case of loss of data, or when no acknowledgment is received, thetransport layer
ensures that the particular erroneous data segment is re-sent tothe receiving host.
 The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred toas a segment or
datagram.

(v) Session Layer:

 This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer.
 It is responsiblefor establishing, controlling, and terminating of communication
betweennetworked hosts.
 The session layer sees full utilization during operations suchas remote procedure calls
and remote sessions.
 The protocol data unit associatedwith this layer is referred to as data.
(vi) Presentation Layer:
 This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model.
  Itis mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks suchthat the
syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network, for which it is also
referred to as the syntax layer.
 The protocol data unit associatedwith this layer is referred to as data.
(vii) Application Layer:
 This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
 It isdirectly accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application
programinterfaces) and terminals.
 Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transferprotocol), e-mails, and other such
operations are initiated from this layer.
 Theapplication layer deals with user authentication, identification of
communicationhosts, quality of service, and privacy.
 The protocol data unit associated with thislayer is referred to as data.

1.3.2 Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite is the another conceptual framework that provides levels
of abstraction for ease of understanding and development of communication andnetworked
systems on the Internet. The OSI model provides four levels of abstraction:
1) Link layer,
2) Internet layer,
3) Transport layer,
4) Application layer.

(i) Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the
network interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and data link
layer of the OSI model. It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical
medium. According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in use,
frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of technologies
such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).

(ii) Internet Layer: It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations. Protocols
associated with this layer are address resolution protocol (ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet
control message protocol (ICMP), and Internet group management protocol (IGMP).

(iii) Transport Layer:This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control,
congestion control, segmentation and addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also
independent of the underlying network. Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user
datagram protocol (UDP) are the core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn
enables itto have the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services
between two ormore hosts or networked devices.
(iv) Application Layer: The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the TCP/IP
protocol suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the OSI model’s session,
presentation, and application layers. This layer enables an end-user to access the services of
the underlying layers and defines the protocols for the transfer of data. Hypertext transfer
protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain
name system (DNS), routing information protocol (RIP), and simple network management
protocol (SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated with this layer.A networked
communication between two hosts following the TCP/IP model isshown in Figure 1.4.

Emergence of IoT:
Introduction
The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular
paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT). Each second, the present-day Internet allows
massively heterogeneous traffic through it. This network traffic consists of images, videos,
music, speech, text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages, data from
sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home automation system status
and control messages, military communications, and many more. This huge variety of data is
generated from a massive number of connected devices, which may be directly connected to
the Internet or connected through gateway devices.

 The three characteristic features

—anytime, anywhere, and anything
—highlight the robustness and dynamic nature of IoT
Evolution of IoT
 The IoT is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts over a few decades.
 The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy
integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using
connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for the development to
fIoT.
ATM
 ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are linked to
a user’s bank account.
 ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account through
a specially coded card.
 The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even
when banks were closed beyond their regular work hours.
 These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers.
 The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.

Web
 World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication
platform.
 The Web became operational for the first time in1991.
 Since then,it has been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the
field of computing and communication.

Smart Meters
 The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in
early 2000.
 These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the
power grid.
 They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the
process of billing and power allocation from grids.
 Advantages
 No need to manually submit readings.
 Easy to monitor your energy usage and spending using in-home display.

Digital Locks
 Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected
home-automation systems.
 Present-day digital locks are so robust that smart phones can be used to
control them.
 Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes,
including new members in the access lists, can be easily performed, and that
too remotely using smart phones.
Connected Healthcare

 Healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them

of medical emergencies and take preventive measures.
 The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart
rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors
in hospitals.
 The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical
records and test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both
patients as well as hospital authorities.

Connected Vehicles

 A connected car is a car that can communicate bidirectionally with other

systems outside of the car (LAN).
 This allows the car to share internet access, and hence data, with other
devices both inside and outside the vehicle.
 Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles,
or even with sensors and actuators contained within it.
 These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system
failures.

Smart Cities
 A smart city is a municipality that uses information and communication
technologies (ICT) to increase operational efficiency, share information with
the public and improve both the quality of government services and citizen
welfare.
 This is a citywide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and
actuation systems.
 The citywide infrastructure communicating amongst them selves enables
unified and synchronized operations and information dissemination.
 Some of the facilities, which may benefit, are parking, transportation, and
others.
Smart Dust
 These are microscopic computers.
 Smart dust is a system of many tiny micro electro mechanical systems such
as sensors, robots, or other devices, that can detect, for example, light,
temperature, vibration, magnetism, or chemicals.
 Advantages
 Light weight.
 Can work without human intervention and are alert 24*7, when certain
conditions are met.
 Can be programmed to monitor a variety of ecosystems in many industries.
 Dramatically reduces human resources cost and increases safety and
compliance.
 Smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to
diagnose problems in the human body.

Smart Factories
 An interconnected network of machines, communication mechanisms, and
computing power, the smart factory is a cyber-physical system that uses
advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning to analyze data, drive automated processes, and learn as it goes.
 Smart manufacturing is a manufacturing approach that uses internet-
connected machinery to improve the efficiency and performance of the
production process.
 This approach tries to identify any opportunities for automating operations,
optimizing production processes, and reducing the wastage of resources.

UAVs
 An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft
without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board.
 UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which includes
adding a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the
UAV
 UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain
solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys,
surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other
tasks.
The interdependence and reach of IoT over various application domains
and networking paradigms
The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications. The major highlight
of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology enabler. Multiple
domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over IoT-based platforms.
Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms, along with modern developments,
makes IoT quite robust and economical for commercial, industrial, as well as consumer
applications. IoT is being used invalid and diverse areas such as smart parking, smart phone
detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart roads, structural
health, urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages,
radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control, snow. Figure 4.7
shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and networking
paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of people (IoP),
and Industry 4.0.

M2M
 The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected
machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention.
 The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status
(stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall
knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.

CPS
 A cyber-physical system or intelligent system is a computer system in which a
mechanism is controlled or monitored by computer-based algorithms.
  The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control
loop
 from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation
 using a feedback mechanism.
 CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback
control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the
system keeps on actuating and sensing.
 Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the
ground-level operations are automated.

IoE
 The networked connection of people, process, data, and things.
 The benefit of IoE is derived from the compound impact of connecting
people, process, data, and things, and the value this increased
connectedness creates as “everything” comes online.
 The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing
the ill effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the
environment.
 The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable
farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy
efficiency of systems and processes, and others.
 In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and
affects the environment falls under the purview of IoE.

Industry 4.0
 The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass
production, and the industrial revolution, respectively.
 Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution
pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry.
 This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories, where
machines talk to one another without much human involvement based on a
framework of CPS and IoT.
 The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better
resource and workforce management, optimization of production time and
resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems
IoP
 IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to
decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other
tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
 IoP has a technological focus. NGI needs to take into consideration many
aspects of the interactions between humans and Internet technologies, such
as adoption, policy, governance and legislative aspects, IoP is a strictly
technology-based approach to design NGI protocols and systems.

4.2.1 IoT versus M2M

M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and

interactions between various machines and devices. These interactions can be
enabled through a cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local
network hub. M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling
device management and device interaction. Telecommunication services providers
introduced the term M2M, and technically emphasized on machine interactions
via one or more communication networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public
networks). M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains, as
shown in Figure 4.7. M2M standards occupy a core place in the IoT landscape.
M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows comprising such interactions within
IoT. Internet connectivity is central to the IoT theme but is not necessarily focused
on the use of telecom networks.

4.2.2 IoT versus CPS

Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and

feedback as a complete package. In other words, a digital twin is attached to a
CPS-based system. Digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in which the
system signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery, while the
model represents the mathematical model or representation of the physical
system’s behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a
physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the comparison of the physical
system’s output, performance, and health. Based on feedback from the digital
twin, a physical system can be easily given corrective directions/commands to
obtain desirable outputs. In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need
feedback or a digital twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than
controls. Some of the constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as
those formed by CPS-based instruments and networks) include feedback and
controls too. In this light, CPS may be considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT,
as shown in Figure 4.7.

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

The Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access and control over IoT
resources and applications. These resources and applications are generally built
using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and others. REST
(representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT. The use of
RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables both
developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance, and
maturity of existing web technologies without having to redesign and redeploy
solutions from scratch. Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various
adaptability and security challenges, especially when trying to build a globally
uniform WoT. As IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things,
people, systems, and applications, which often do not consider the unification
aspect and the limitations of the Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to
integrate the various focus areas of IoT into the existing Web is really invaluable.
Technically, WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based that added over
the network layer. The scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also which
includes non-IP-based systems that are not accessible through the web.

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies

(both legacy and modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm. Figure
4.8, the IoT paradigm into four planes:
1. Services,
2. Local connectivity,
3. Global connectivity,
4. Processing.
Services
  The services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low-power
connectivity.
 For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is mainly
built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
 The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart
glasses, factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other such
contraptions (which may even be just a sensor).
 The immediate low-power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things in
local implementation, may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular.
 In contrast, modern-day technologies are mainly wireless and often programmable such
as Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH, In steon, and others.

Local connectivity

 The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT
deployments.
 This distribution may be on the basis of the physical placement of the things, on the
basis of the application domains, or even on the basis of providers of services.
 Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep scheduling,
and others fall within the scope of this plane.
 For example, in a smart home environment, the first floor and the ground floor may
have local IoT implementations, which have various things connected to the network via
low-power, low-range connectivity technologies.
 The traffic from these two floors merges into a single router or a gateway. The total
traffic intended for the Internet from a smart home leaves through a single gateway or
router, which may be assigned a single global IP address (for the whole house).
 The local connectivity plane falls under the purview of IoT management as it directly
deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things and applications.

Global connectivity
 Global connectivity plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing
for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things, users, controllers, and
applications.
 This plane also falls under the purview of IoT management as it decides how and when
to store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it.
 The Web, data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others make up this plane.
Processing
  The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the basic IoT networking
framework.
 The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas
such as industries, transportation, healthcare, and others is the result of this plane. The
members in this plane may be termed as
 The various sub-domains of this plane include intelligence, conversion (data and format
conversion, and data cleaning), learning (making sense of temporal and spatial data
patterns), cognition (recognizing patterns and mapping it to already known
patterns),algorithms (various control and monitoring algorithms), visualization
(rendering numbers and strings in the form of collective trends, graphs, charts, and
projections),and analysis (estimating the usefulness of the generated information,
making sense of the information with respect to the application and place of data
generation, and estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of
information obtained).
 Various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine Learning”, and others, fall
within the scope of this domain.

IoT Networking Components

IoT network components into six types:
1. IoT node,
2. IoT router,
3. IoT LAN,
4. IoT WAN,
5. IoT gateway, and
6. IoT proxy.

IoT Node
 These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN.
 Each of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or out side it).
 The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a
common gateway for that LAN.
 Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.

IoT Router
 An IoT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily tasked with the
routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network;
 it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network.
 A router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
IoT LAN
  The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the purview of a single
gateway.
 It consist of short-range connectivity technologies.
 IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet.
 Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization.

IoT WAN
 The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as LANs.
 They are typically organizationally and geographically wide,with their operational range
lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
 IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the segments they are
connecting.

IoT Gateway
 An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
 Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
 Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer using
only layer 3.

IoT Proxy
 Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions
between IoT nodes and other entities.
 Typically, application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ;
 It helps to extend the addressing range of its network.

The various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as well as talk to
the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it. The devices have locally unique (LU-x)
device identifiers. These identifiers are unique only within a LAN. Each IoT LAN has its own
unique identifier, which is denoted by IoT LAN-x A router acts as a connecting link between
various LANs by forwarding messages from the LANs to the IoT gateway or the IoT proxy. The
proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally possible to include features such as
firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the regular routing operations.
Various gateways connect to an IoT WAN, which links these devices to the Internet.