3.

THE PRINCIPAL STEPS IN A SAMPLE SURVEY

As a preliminary to a discussion of the role that theory plays in a sample survey, it is useful to describe
briefly the steps involved in the planning and execution of a survey.

The principal steps in a survey are grouped somewhat arbitrarily under 11 headings.

3.1 Objectives of the survey

The first step when assessing a sample survey is to well identify the general objectives of the survey.
Without a lucid statement of the objectives, it is easy in a complex survey to forget the objectives when
engrossed in the details of planning, and to make decisions that are at variance with the objectives.

One of the principal choice is between average values (mean of the population) or total values. In fact,
depending on this choice, techniques for the optimal sample size and estimators factors are different.

A number of measures exist that have been used by various agencies to measure the economic
significance of fisheries to the regional economy. In addition, a number of performance indicators also
exist that can be used to assess the performance of fisheries management in achieving its economic
objectives (see chapter 1 and related annexes).

3.2 Population to be sampled

The word population is used to denote the aggregate from which the sample is chosen. The definition of
the population may present some problems in the fishing sector, as it should consider the complete list of
vessels and their physical and technical characteristics.

The population to be sampled (the sampled population) should coincide with the population about which
information is wanted (the target population). Some-times, for reasons of practicability or convenience,
the sampled population is more restricted than the target population. If so, it should be remembered that
conclusions drawn from the sample apply to the sampled population. Judgement about the extent to
which these conclusions will also apply to the target population must depend on other sources of
information. Any supplementary information that can be gathered about the nature of the differences
between sampled and target population may be helpful.

For example, let us consider the Italian statistical sampling design for the estimation of “quantity and
average price of fishery products landed each calendar month in Italy by Community and EFTA vessels”
(Reg. CE n. 1382/91 modified by Reg. CE n. 2104/93). Aim of the survey is to estimate total catches and
average prices for individual species. Therefore, the sampling basis consists of the more than 800 landing
points spread over the 8 000 km of Italian coasts. It is not however feasible to consider the list of the
landing points as the list of elementary units. To overcome these difficulties, a sampled population,
distinct from the target population but including units in which the considered phenomenon takes place,
has been considered. In synthesis, the elementary units considered are the landings of the vessels
belonging to the sampled fleet. Thus, the list from which the sampling units are extracted is constituted by
all the vessels belonging to the Italian fishery fleet.

3.3 Data to be collected

It is well to verify that all the data are relevant to the purposes of the survey and that no essential data are
omitted There is frequently a tendency to ask too many questions, some of which are never subsequently
analysed. An overlong questionnaire lowers the quality of the answers to important as well as unimportant
questions.

3.4 Degree of precision desired

The results of sample surveys are always subject to some uncertainty because only part of the population
has been measured and because of errors of measurement. This uncertainty can be reduced by taking
larger samples and by using superior instruments of measurement. But this usually costs time and
money. Consequently, the specification of the degree of precision wanted in the results is an important
step. This step is the responsibility of the person who is going to use the data. It may present difficulties,
since many administrators are unaccustomed to thinking in terms of the amount of error that can be
tolerated in estimates, consistent with making good decisions. The statistician can often help at this stage.

3.5 The questionnaire and the choice of the data collectors

There may be a choice of measuring instrument and of method of approach to the population. The survey
may employ a self-administered questionnaire, an interviewer who reads a standard set of questions with
no discretion, or an interviewing process that allows much latitude in the form and ordering of the
questions. The approach may be by mail, by telephone, by personal visit, or by a combination of the
three. Much study has been made of interviewing methods and problems.

A major part of the preliminary work is the construction of record forms on which the questions and
answers are to be entered. With simple questionnaires, the answers can sometimes be pre-coded, that is,
entered in a manner in which they can be routinely transferred to mechanical equipment. In fact, for the
construction of good record forms, it is necessary to visualise the structure of the final summary tables
that will be used for drawing conclusions.

Information may be collected using a number of different survey methods. These include personal
interview, telephone interview or postal survey. The questionnaire design needs to vary based on the
approach taken.

Personal interviews involves visiting the individual from which data are to be collected. The interviewer
controls the questionnaire, and fills in the required data. The questionnaire can be less detailed in terms
of explanatory information as the interviewer can be trained on its completion before starting the interview
process. This type of survey is best for long, complex surveys and it allows the interviewer and fisher to
agree a time convenient for both parties. It is particularly useful when the respondent may have to go and
find information such as accounts, log book records etc. The personal interview approach also allows the
interviewer to probe more fully if he/she feels that the fisher has misunderstood a question, or information
provided conflicts with other earlier statements.

Data collectors are usually external to the phenomenon that is being examined and, moreover, they are
often part of some public structure, in order to avoid possible influences due to personal interests.
However, on the basis of the experience acquired in this field by Irepa, it has been demonstrated (Istat,
Irepa 2000) that it is essential to have data collectors belonging to the fishery productive chain in order to
obtain correct and timely data. Therefore, data collectors should belong to the productive or management
fishery sectors.

During meetings on socio-economic indicators partners involved presented several questionnaires. These
questionnaires are aimed to collect the information required to calculate the socio-economic indicators
and some of them are reported in appendix C.

3.6 Selection of the sample design

There is a variety of plans by which the sample may be selected (simple random sample, stratified
random sample, two-stage sampling, etc.). For each plan that is considered, rough estimates of the size
of sample can be made from a knowledge of the degree of precision desired. The relative costs and time
involved for each plan are also compared before making a decision.

3.7 Sampling units

Sample units have to be drawn according to the sample design.

To draw sample units from the population, several methods can be used, depending on the type of the
chosen sample strategy:

 sample with equal probabilities

 sample with probabilities proportional to the size (PPS).

In the first case, each unit of the population has the same probability to take part of the sample, while in
the case of a PPS sample each unit has a different probability to be sampled and this probability is
proportional to the following measure: Pi = Xi/Xh, where, i = a generic vessel, h = stratum, X= a size
parameter, for example the overall length of a vessel.

3.8 The pre-test

It has been found useful to try out the questionnaire and the field methods on a small scale. This nearly
always results in improvements in the questionnaire and may reveal other troubles that will be serious on
a large scale, for example, that the cost will be much greater than expected.

3.9 Organization of the field work

In a survey, many problems of business administration are met. The personnel must receive training in
the purpose of the survey and in the methods of measurement to be employed and must be adequately
supervised in their work.

A procedure for early checking of the quality of the returns is invaluable.

Plans must be made for handling non-response, that is, the failure of the enumerator to obtain information
from certain of the units in the sample.

3.10 Summary and analysis of the data

The first step is to edit the completed questionnaires, in the hope of amending recording errors, or at least
of deleting data that are obviously erroneous. The check on the elementary data to eliminate non-
sampling errors can be achieved by means of computer programmes implemented to correct the
erroneous values and to permit statistical data analysis. These programmes are mainly based on
graphical analysis of elementary data.

Thereafter, the computations that lead to the estimates are performed. Different methods of estimation
may be available for the same data.

In the presentation of results it is good practice to report the amount of error to be expected in the most
important estimates One of the advantages of probability sampling is that such statements can be made,
although they have to be severely qualified if the amount of non-response is substantial

3.11 Information gained for future surveys

The more information we have initially about a population, the easier it is to devise a sample that will give
accurate estimates. Any completed sample is potentially a guide to improved future sampling, in the data
that it supplies about the means, standard deviations, and nature of the variability of the principal
measurements and about the costs involved in getting the data. Sampling practice advances more rapidly
when provisions are made to assemble and record information of this type.

Figure 1: The principal steps in a sample survey

Sampling Methods
We know that statistical research helps in drawing several conclusions based on the requirement
of the experts. This uses the data collected for a specific purpose. We can collect the data using
various sampling methods in statistics. However, the type of sampling method is chosen based
on the objective of the statistical research. The statistical research is of two forms:

 In the first form, each domain is studied, and the result can be obtained by computing the sum
of all units.
 In the second form, only a unit in the field of the survey is taken. It represents the domain. The
result of these samples extends to the domain. This type of study is known as the sample survey.
In this article, let us discuss the different sampling methods in research such as probability
sampling and non-probability sampling methods and various methods involved in those two
approaches in detail.

Table of Contents:

 Definition
 Types
 Probability Sampling Methods

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling

 Stratified sampling

 Clustered sampling

 Non-probability Sampling Methods

 Convenience sampling

 Consecutive sampling

 Quota sampling

 Purposive or Judgmental sampling

 Snowball sampling

 Probability vs Non-probability Sampling

 FAQs
What are the sampling methods or Sampling Techniques?
In Statistics, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data where
the sample space is enormous.
There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically targeting hard or approach to
reach groups.

 Random Sampling
 Sampling Error Formula
 Population and Sample
 Sampling error

Types of Sampling Method

In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
population. The two different types of sampling methods are::

 Probability Sampling
 Non-probability Sampling

Also, read: Sample statistic

What is Probability Sampling?

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely
chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance,
this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the
item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.
Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can
assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number
generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systematic Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting
the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is
calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population size.
Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To
select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by
randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th
person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete
the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population.
After separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.
For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls,
bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag
proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.
Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population
set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being
a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of
students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to
every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four
branches as clusters.
All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population
using different techniques.

What is Non-Probability Sampling?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because
they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the
researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.
Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to
complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data.
Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not
representative of all the customers in that area.

Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher
picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a
period of time to analyze the result and move to another group if needed.

Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to
represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample
subsets that bring the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.
Learn more about quota sampling here.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As
their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly
accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or
authoritative sampling.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
population.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling

Methods
The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in Non-probability sampling method is a technique in

which samples taken from a larger population are which the researcher chooses samples based on
chosen based on probability theory. subjective judgment, preferably random selection.

These are also known as Random sampling These are also called non-random sampling
methods. methods.

These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.

These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in probability The hypothesis is derived later by conducting the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the objective research study in the case of non-probability
of this method is to validate the defined hypothesis. sampling.

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Frequently Asked Questions on Sampling Methods

What are sampling methods in statistics?
In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
population. These are categorized into two different types of sampling methods. They are:
Probability Sampling Methods
Non-probability Sampling methods

What are the methods of probability sampling?

The probability sampling methods are:
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Clustered Sampling

What are the non-probability sampling methods?

The non-probability sampling methods are:
Convenience Sampling
Consecutive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
Snowball Sampling

What is an example of simple random sampling?

An example of simple random sampling is given below.
Selection of a simple random sample of 50 female employees in an organization out of 1000 female
employees: Here, we can assign a number to every female employee 1 to 1000 and use a random
number generator to select 50 numbers. Thus, we can get a sample of 50 female employees.

How do you collect a convenience sample?

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because they
are conveniently available for the researcher. As a result, the samples are easy to set, and the researcher
did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.

THE ROLE OF SAMPLING THEORY

 1. to compare the observed and expected values and to find if the
difference can be ascribed to the fluctuations of sampling;
2. to estimate population parameters from the sample, and
3. to find out the degree of reliability of the estimate.

Procedure
Definition: Procedure, refers to a comprehensive set of instructions that
prescribes a certain way of performing a process, or part of a process, in
relation to time. It states a chronological sequence for undertaking activities,
so as to achieve the objectives.

The procedures are meant for insiders (members of the organization including
employees, directors, managers and workers) to be pursued. They are also
popularly known as the term Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs). It
states exactly what course of action is to be followed by an employee in a
specific circumstance.

Characteristics of Procedure
Procedures are operational guidelines, reflecting the way in which policies can
be implemented. A company’s policies and procedures are interconnected to
one another, which are to be undertaken within a general policy framework.
The salient features of procedures are discussed as under:
  Acts as a guide to action.
 Defined keeping in view the company’s objectives, policies and
resources.
 Related to the time sequence for the work to be performed.
 Meant for handling repetitive and regular events effectively.
 Relevant for controlling and coordination of activities.
Procedure suggests particular beginning and endpoints which are required to
be pursued in an exact manner to efficiently and satisfactorily carry out a task.

Importance of Procedure
Upcoming points will discuss the importance of procedures:

 It defines the manner in which work is to be carried out and eliminate all
the irrelevant or repetitive steps.
  It ensures a high level of uniformity in tasks, and consistency in the
decisions which helps in avoiding chaos.
 To undertake any task in an effective manner, the procedure suggests
the ideal ways and methods.
 It facilitates in eliminating or reducing errors or accidents.
 It assists in the successful completion of the work assigned in a timely
manner.
 Procedures specify the base for evaluating the performance of the
workers or employees. In this way, it ensures executive control over the
performance of employees.
 It saves time, efforts and money because it states the standard ways for
doing things.
The procedure is a component of planning which handles the “how” and
“when” aspect, i.e. it specifies the way in which work is to be performed and
the right time for performing it.

Limitations of Procedure
As every coin has two sides, the procedure also has some limitations. As a
standard way is prescribed for performing the task, it constrains the scope for
innovation or improvement in performing the work.

Example
A firm develops procedures for various activities like purchasing, issuing raw
materials from stores, recruiting employees, conducting meetings, handling
grievances, granting loans to employees resolving customers issues, dealing
with clients, granting leaves to employees, etc.

Basically, there is a definite procedure for each repetitive activity in a business

concern.Come let’s discuss some examples:

Procedure followed for purchasing raw materials:

1. Request made by the storekeeper to the purchasing department

2. Inviting tenders for purchase of materials
 3. Selecting the suppliers
4. Placing the order with the selected suppliers
5. Inspection of materials purchased
6. Payment made by the accounts department
Procedure followed for recruiting employees:

1. Inviting applications through advertisements on various platforms.

2. Screeing of the employees, through the CV or resume, received for the
post.
3. Shortlisting the candidates and inviting them.
4. Conducting a written test.
5. Conducting an interview for the candidates who clear the written test.
6. Medical test for those who are selected in the interview round.
7. Candidates who pass the medical test successfully are sent joining
letter.
Simply put, the procedure is a well-defined method of completing a task,
which embraces a series of steps to be undertaken while performing a course
of action to undertake a repetitive task in a uniform as well as consistent
manner.

Procedures can be reviewed and revised on the basis of past incidents and
behaviours.

What is an Estimator?

The sample mean is an estimator for the population mean.

In statistics, an estimator is a rule for calculating an estimate of a given quantity based
on observed data: thus the rule (the estimator), the quantity of interest (the estimand)
and its result (the estimate) are distinguished.[1] For example, the sample mean is a
commonly used estimator of the population mean.
What are Confidence Intervals?
Often in statistics we’re interested in measuring population
parameters – numbers that describe some characteristic of an
entire population.
Two of the most common population parameters are:
1. Population mean: the mean value of some variable in a
population (e.g. the mean height of males in the U.S.)
2. Population proportion: the proportion of some variable
in a population (e.g. the proportion of residents in a county who
support a certain law)
Although we’re interested in measuring these parameters, it’s
usually too costly and time-consuming to actually go around
and collect data on every individual in a population in order to
calculate the population parameter.
Instead, we typically take a random sample from the overall
population and use data from the sample to estimate the
population parameter.
For example, suppose we want to estimate the mean weight of
a certain species of turtle in Florida. Since there are thousands
of turtles in Florida, it would be extremely time-consuming and
costly to go around and weigh each individual turtle.
Instead, we might take a simple random sample of 50 turtles
and use the mean weight of the turtles in this sample to
estimate the true population mean:

The problem is that the mean weight of turtles in the sample is

not guaranteed to exactly match the mean weight of turtles in
the whole population. For example, we might just happen to
pick a sample full of low-weight turtles or perhaps a sample full
of heavy turtles.
In order to capture this uncertainty we can create a confidence
interval. A confidence interval is a range of values that is
likely to contain a population parameter with a certain level of
confidence. It is calculated using the following general formula:
Confidence Interval = (point estimate) +/- (critical
value)*(standard error)
This formula creates an interval with a lower bound and an
upper bound, which likely contains a population parameter with
a certain level of confidence.
Confidence Interval = [lower bound, upper bound]
For example, the formula to calculate a confidence interval for a
population mean is as follows:
Confidence Interval = x +/- z*(s/√n)
where:
 x: sample mean
 z: the chosen z-value
 s: sample standard deviation
 n: sample size
The z-value that you will use is dependent on the confidence
level that you choose. The following table shows the z-value
that corresponds to popular confidence level choices:
Confidence z-
Level value
0.90 1.645
0.95 1.96
0.99 2.58

For example, suppose we collect a random sample of turtles

with the following information:
 Sample size n = 25
 Sample mean weight x = 300
 Sample standard deviation s = 18.5
Here is how to find calculate the 90% confidence interval for the
true population mean weight:
90% Confidence Interval: 300 +/- 1.645*(18.5/√25)
= [293.91, 306.09]
We interpret this confidence interval as follows:
There is a 90% chance that the confidence interval of [293.91,
306.09] contains the true population mean weight of turtles.
Another way of saying the same thing is that there is only a
10% chance that the true population mean lies outside of the
90% confidence interval. That is, there’s only a 10% chance
that the true population mean weight of turtles is greater than
306.09 pounds or less than 293.91 pounds.
It’s worth nothing that there are two numbers that can affect the
size of a confidence interval:
1. The sample size: The larger the sample size, the more
narrow the confidence interval.
2. The confidence level: The larger the confidence level,
the wider the confidence interval.
Types of Confidence Intervals
There are many types of confidence intervals. Here are the
most commonly used ones:
Confidence Interval for a Mean
A confidence interval for a mean is a range of values
that is likely to contain a population mean with a certain level of
confidence. The formula to calculate this interval is:
Confidence Interval = x +/- z*(s/√n)
where:
 x: sample mean
 z: the chosen z-value
 s: sample standard deviation
 n: sample size
Resources:
How to Calculate a Confidence Interval for a Mean
Confidence Interval for a Mean Calculator
Confidence Interval for the Difference Between
Means
A confidence interval (C.I.) for a difference
between means is a range of values that is likely to contain
the true difference between two population means with a certain
level of confidence. The formula to calculate this interval is:
Confidence interval = (x1–x2) +/- t*√((sp2/n1) + (sp2/n2))
where:
 x1, x2: sample 1 mean, sample 2 mean
 t: the t-critical value based on the confidence level and
(n1+n2-2) degrees of freedom
 sp2: pooled variance
 n1, n2: sample 1 size, sample 2 size
where:
 The pooled variance is calculated as: sp2 = ((n1-1)s12 + (n2-
1)s22) / (n1+n2-2)
 The t-critical value t can be found using the Inverse t
Distribution calculator
Resources:
How to Calculate a Confidence Interval for the Difference Between
Means
Confidence Interval for the Difference Between Means Calculator
Confidence Interval for a Proportion
A confidence interval for a proportion is a range of
values that is likely to contain a population proportion with a
certain level of confidence. The formula to calculate this interval
is:
Confidence Interval = p +/- z*(√p(1-p) / n)
where:
 p: sample proportion
 z: the chosen z-value
 n: sample size
Resources:
How to Calculate a Confidence Interval for a Proportion
Confidence Interval for a Proportion Calculator
Confidence Interval for the Difference in
Proportions
A confidence interval for the difference in
proportions is a range of values that is likely to contain the
true difference between two population proportions with a
certain level of confidence.. The formula to calculate this
interval is:
Confidence interval = (p1–p2) +/- z*√(p1(1-p1)/n1 +
p2(1-p2)/n2)
where:
 p1, p2: sample 1 proportion, sample 2 proportion
 z: the z-critical value based on the confidence level
 n1, n2: sample 1 size, sample 2 size