Module 3:

Stress and Strain Transformations

Strain Transformation and Failure Theories

Instructor: Dhanya J.
 Plane Strain
General state of strain at a point three components of normal strain (εx, εy, εz ), and three components of shear strain (γxy, γ yz, γ xz )

Like stress, the normal and shear strain components at the point will vary according to the orientation of the element.
In general, then, a plane-strained element is subjected to two components of normal strain, (εx, εy ) and one component of
shear strain, (γxy)

Plane stress does not necessarily cause plane strain or vice versa

This is obviously not a case of plane strain. In general, then, unless υ=0, the Poisson
effect will prevent the simultaneous occurrence of plane strain and plane stress.
General Equations of Plane-Strain Transformation
General Equations of Plane-Strain Transformation
General Equations of Plane-Strain Transformation
strain-transformation equation for γx’y’

Since α and β represent the rotation of the sides dx’ and dy’ of a differential element whose sides were originally oriented
along the x’ and y’ axes
General Equations of Plane-Strain Transformation

simplifying using
Principal Strains
Like stress, an element can be oriented at a point so that the element’s deformation is caused only by normal strains,
with no shear strain. When this occurs the normal strains are referred to as principal strains, and if the material is
isotropic, the axes along which these strains occur will coincide with the axes that define the planes of principal stress

Maximum In-Plane Shear Strain

The element representing the maximum in-plane shear strain and its associated average normal strains is 45° from
the orientation of an element representing the principal strains.
Mohr’s Circle—Plane Strain
 Principal Strain

Strain on Arbitrary Plane

Maximum In-Plane
Shear Strain
Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
 Strain Rosettes
For a general loading on a body, the strains at a point on its free surface are determined using a cluster of three electrical-
resistance strain gauges, arranged in a specified pattern. This pattern is referred to as a strain rosette, and once the normal
strains on the three gauges are measured, the data can then be transformed to specify the state of strain at the point.

Delta strain rosette

Strain Rosettes
 Material-Property Relationships
Relationship Involving E, υ, and G

This strain, which deforms the element along the x’ axis, can also be related to the shear strain γxy
So Substituting to

Substituting to and rearranging

 Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
When an elastic material is subjected to normal stress, its volume will change.

The change in volume per unit volume is called the “volumetric strain”
or the dilatation e

Applying generalized hook’s law

The state of “hydrostatic” loading requires the normal stresses to be equal in any and all
directions, and therefore an element of the body is subjected to principal stresses

The volume modulus of elasticity or the bulk modulus

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

The theoretical maximum value for Poisson’s ratio is 0.5 therefore During yielding, no actual volume
change of the material is observed, and so υ = 0.5 is used when plastic yielding occurs.
Theories of Failure
• If the material is ductile, failure is usually specified by the initiation of yielding, whereas if the material is
brittle, it is specified by fracture. These modes of failure are readily defined if the member is subjected to a
uniaxial state of stress, as in the case of simple tension; however, if the member is subjected to biaxial or
triaxial stress, the criterion for failure becomes more difficult to establish

• No single theory of failure, however, can be applied to a specific material at all times, because a material may
behave in either a ductile or brittle manner depending on the temperature, rate of loading, chemical
environment, or the way the material is shaped or formed.

• When using a particular theory of failure, it is first necessary to calculate the normal and shear stress at points
where they are the largest in the member.

• Once this state of stress is established, the principal stresses at these critical points are then determined, since
each of the following theories is based on knowing the principal stress.
 Theories of Failure: Ductile Material
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory

Caused by shear stress

 Theories of Failure: Ductile Material
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
In1868 Henri Tresca proposed the maximum-shear-stress theory or Tresca yield criterion. This theory can be used to
predict the failure stress of a ductile material subjected to any type of loading.
The theory states that yielding of the material begins when the absolute maximum shear stress in the material reaches
the shear stress that causes the same material to yield when it is subjected only to axial tension. Therefore, to avoid
failure, it is required that in the material must be less than or equal to where is determined from a simple tension test

If the two in-plane principal stresses have the same sign

If the in-plane principal stresses are of opposite signs

Theories of Failure: Ductile Material
Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
If the material is subjected to a uniaxial stress the strain-energy density

If the material is subjected to triaxial stress, then each principal stress contributes a
portion of the total strain-energy density, so that

If the material behaves in a linear-elastic manner, then Hooke’s law applies

Theories of Failure: Ductile Material
Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
Experimental evidence has shown that materials do not yield when subjected to a uniform (hydrostatic) stress
In 1904, M. Huber proposed that yielding in a ductile material occurs when the distortion energy per unit volume of
the material equals or exceeds the distortion energy per unit volume of the same material when it is subjected to
yielding in a simple tension test. This theory is called the maximum-distortion-energy theory,
To obtain the distortion energy per unit volume, we will substitute the stresses (σ1 - σ avg) , (σ1 - σ avg) and (σ1 - σ avg)
for and respectively, realizing that σ avg =(σ1+ σ1+ σ1) /3 Expanding and simplifying, we obtain
Theories of Failure: Ductile Material
Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory

A comparison of the above two failure criteria

• Both theories give the same results when the principal
stresses are equal or when one of the principal stresses is
zero and the other has a magnitude of σY
• If the material is subjected to pure shear, then the
theories have the largest discrepancy in predicting
failure
• Actual torsion tests, used to develop a condition of pure
shear in a ductile specimen, have shown that the
maximum-distortion-energy theory gives more accurate
results for pure-shear failure than the maximum-shear-
stress theory (15% more accurate)
Theories of Failure: Brittle Material
Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory/ Rankine’s Theory
In a tension test, the fracture occurs when the normal stress reaches the ultimate stress. brittle fracture occurs in a
torsion test due to tension since the plane of fracture for an element is at 45° to the shear direction

If the material is subjected to plane stress, we require that

Experimentally it has been found to be in close agreement with the behavior of brittle materials that have stress–
strain diagrams that are similar in both tension and compression.
 Theories of Failure: Brittle Material
Mohr’s Failure Criterion.
In some brittle materials tension and compression properties are different. When this occurs a criterion based on
the use of Mohr’s circle may be used to predict failure.
To apply it, one first performs three tests on the material. A uniaxial tensile test and uniaxial compressive
test are used to determine the ultimate tensile and compressive stresses respectively. Also a torsion test is
performed to determine the material’s ultimate shear stress
If it extends beyond the envelope’s boundary, then failure is said to occur

Due to material imperfections, tensile fracture of a brittle material is difficult to predict, and so theories of failure for brittle
materials should be used with caution.
 Problem
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane strain εx = 500 × 10-6 εy = -300 × 10-6
and γxy = 200 × 10-6 which tends to distort the element as shown. Determine the equivalent strains acting on an
element of the material oriented at the point, clockwise 30° from the original position.
 Problem
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane strain defined by εx = -350 × 10-6 εy = 200
× 10-6 and γxy = 200 × 10-6 which tends to distort the element as shown. (a) Determine the principal strains at the
point and the associated orientation of the element (b) Determine the maximum in-plane shear strain at the point
and the associated orientation of the element.
The maximum in-plane shear strain

45° from principal strain plane

To check actual sign of γx’y’

Mohr Circle
Determine the principal strains and the orientation of the element.
Mohr Circle
Determine the maximum in-plane shear strains and the orientation of an element.
 Mohr Circle
Determine the state of strain on an element oriented 20° clockwise from this reported position.
Absolute maximum shear strain
 Strain Rosette
The state of strain at point A on the bracket is measured using the strain rosette as shown. Due to the loadings, the
readings from the gauges give εa = 60× 10-6 εb = 135 × 10-6 and εc = 264 × 10-6 Determine the in-plane principal
strains at the point and the directions in which they act
εa = 60× 10-6 εb = 135 × 10-6 and εc = 264 × 10-6 Determine the principal stresses at point A

Applying generalized Hook’s Law

 Homework
The 60° strain rosette is mounted on a beam as shown. The following readings are obtained for
each gauge: εa = 600× 10-6 εb = -700 × 10-6 and εc = 350 × 10-6 Determine (a) the in-plane
principal strains and (b) the maximum in-plane shear strain and average normal strain. In each
case show the deformed element due to these strains.

The state of plane strain on an element is by εx = 400× 10-6 εy = 200 × 10-6 and γxy = -300 ×
10-6 . Determine (a) the equivalent state of strain on an element at the same point oriented 30°
clockwise with respect to the original element (b) the principal strains, and (c) the maximum
in-plane shear strain and the associated average normal strain. Specify the orientation of the
corresponding element at the point with respect to the original element for each case also draw
the corresponding sketch of deformed element

The 45° strain rosette is mounted on a steel shaft. The following readings are
obtained from each gauge: εa = 300× 10-6 εb = -250 × 10-6 and εc = -450 × 10-6
Determine (a) the in-plane principal strains and (b) the maximum in-plane shear
strain and average normal strain. In each case show the deformed element due to
these strains.
 Problem
The copper bar is subjected to a uniform loading along its edges as
shown. If it has a length a=300mm, width b = 50mm and thickness t =
20mm before the load is applied, determine its new length, width, and
thickness after application of the load. Take n Ecu = 120 GPa, υcu = 0.34

Applying generalized Hooke’s law

 Homework
The steel shaft has a radius of 15 mm. Determine the torque T in the shaft if the two strain gauges, attached to the surface
of the shaft, report strains of εx’ = -80× 10-6 εy’ = 80 × 10-6 . Also, compute the strains acting in the x and y directions. Est =
200 GPa, υst = 0.3.

The 6061-T6 aluminum alloy plate fits snugly into the rigid constraint. Determine the normal stresses σx and σy
developed in the plate if the temperature is increased by 50°C.
Problem
The solid cast-iron shaft is subjected to a torque as shown. Determine its smallest radius so that it does not fail
according to the maximum-normal-stress theory. A specimen of cast iron, tested in tension, has an ultimate stress of
(σult)t = 20 ksi
The maximum or critical stress occurs at a point located on the surface of the shaft.
Assuming the shaft to have a radius r, the shear stress is

The maximum-normal-stress theory

Thus, the smallest radius of the shaft is determined from

Problem
The solid shaft shown has a radius of 0.5 in. and is made of steel having a yield stress of σY = 36 ksi. Determine if
the loadings cause the shaft to fail according to the maximum-shear-stress theory and the maximum-distortion-
energy theory
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory

Shear failure of the material will occur

Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory

Failure will not occur

 Homework
Cast iron when tested in tension and compression has an ultimate strength of (σult)t = 280 MPa and (σult)c = 420 MPa
respectively. Also, when subjected to pure torsion it can sustain an ultimate shear stress of τult = 168 Mpa. Plot the
Mohr’s circles for each case and establish the failure envelope. If a part made of this material is subjected to the state of
plane stress shown, determine if it fails according to Mohr’s failure criterion.

The plate is made of hard copper, which yields at σyeild = 700 MPa . Using the maximum-shear-stress theory, determine
the tensile stress σx that can be applied to the plate if a tensile stress σy = 0.5 σx is also applied. Solve the same problem
according to the maximum-distortion energy theory