Electric Circuits 1

“ECE131”
Instructor: Dr. Ahmed H. Kassem
E-mail: [email protected]
Lecture 4
Series circuits contd’
Series circuits
Interchanging series elements
Series circuits
Example 1: Determine I and the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor
for the network in Fig.
Series circuits
Example 1: Determine I and the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor
for the network in Fig.
Series circuits
Example 1: Determine I and the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor
for the network in Fig.
Solution
𝑅𝑡 = 4 + 4 + 7 = 15 Ω

𝐸 37.5
𝐼= = = 2.5 𝐴
𝑅𝑡 15

𝑉 = 𝐼 × 7Ω = 2.5 × 7Ω = 17.5 𝑉
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
Electrical and electronic systems are grounded for reference and safety
purposes. The symbol for the ground connection appears in Fig. with its
defined potential level—zero volts.
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
A grounded circuit may appear as shown in Fig. (a), (b), or (c).
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
In any case, it is understood that the negative terminal of the battery and
the bottom of the resistor R2 are at ground potential.
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
Although Fig. (c) shows no connection between the two grounds, it is
recognized that such a connection exists for the continuous flow of
charge.
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
If E = 12 V, then point a is 12 V positive with respect to ground
potential, and 12 V exist across the series combination of resistors R1
and R2. If a voltmeter placed from point b to ground reads 4 V, then the
voltage across R2 is 4 V, with the higher potential at point b.
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
On large schematics where space is at a premium and clarity is
important, voltage sources may be indicated as shown in Figs
Series circuits
Voltage Sources and Ground
In addition, potential levels may be indicated as in Fig., to permit a
rapid check of the potential levels at various points in a network with
respect to ground to ensure that the system is operating properly.
Series circuits
Double-subscript notation
The double-subscript notation Vab specifies point “a” as the higher
potential. If this is not the case, a negative sign must be associated
with the magnitude of Vab.
In other words,
The voltage Vab is the voltage at point “a” with respect to (w.r.t.) point
“b”.
Series circuits
Single-Subscript notation
The single-subscript notation Va specifies the voltage at point “a” with
respect to ground (zero volts). If the voltage is less than zero volts, a
negative sign must be associated with the magnitude of Va.
Series circuits
Single-Subscript notation
A particularly useful relationship can now be established that has
extensive applications in the analysis of electronic circuits. For the
above notational standards, the following relationship exists:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸 = 10 𝑉

10𝑉
𝑉𝑏 = 4Ω =4𝑉
6+4

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 10 − 4
=6𝑉
Series circuits
Example 2: Find the voltage Vab for the conditions in Fig.
Solution:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 16 − 20 = −4 𝑉

Note the negative sign to reflect the fact that point b is at a higher
potential than point a.
Example 3: Find the voltage Va for the configuration in Fig.
Solution
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 ⟹ 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑏 = 5 + 4 = 9 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 4: Find the voltage Vab for the configuration in Fig.
Solution:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 20 − −15 = 35 𝑉
A voltage drop of 35 V happens across the resistance
as voltage drops from +20 V to -15 V.
Series circuits
Example 5: Find the voltages Vb, Vc, and Vac for the network in
Fig.
Solution:
Starting at ground potential (zero volts),
we proceed through a rise of 10 V to reach
point “a” and then pass through a drop in
potential of 4 V to point “b”.
The result is that the meter reads
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 10 − 4 = 6 𝑉
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝐸2 = 6 − 20 = −14 𝑉
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 = 10 − −14 = 24 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 6: Determine Vab, Vcb, and Vc for the network in Fig.
Solution:
𝐸1 + 𝐸2
𝐼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

35 + 19 54
= =
25 + 20 45

= 1.2 𝐴
Series circuits
Example 6: Determine Vab, Vcb, and Vc for the network in Fig.
Solution:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝐼 × 𝑅2
= 1.2 × 25 = 30 𝑉

𝑉𝑐𝑏 = −𝑉𝑅1 = −𝐼 × 𝑅1
= −1.2 × 20 = −24 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 6: Determine Vab, Vcb, and Vc for the network in Fig.
Solution:
Or
𝐸 54
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 25 × = 30 𝑉
𝑅2 + 𝑅1 45

𝐸
𝑉𝑐𝑏 = −𝑉𝑏𝑐 = −𝑉𝑅1 = −𝑅1
𝑅2 + 𝑅1

54
= −20 × = −24 𝑉
45
Series circuits
Example 6: Determine Vab, Vcb, and Vc for the network in Fig.
Solution:

𝑉𝑐 = −19 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 7: Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages
V1 and V2 of Fig.
Solution:

𝐸 24
𝑉1 = 𝑅1 =4
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6
= 16 𝑉

𝐸 24
𝑉2 = 𝑅2 =2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 6
=8𝑉
Series circuits
Example 8: For the network in Fig.
a. Calculate Vab.
b. Determine Vb.
c. Calculate Vc.
Solution:
a. Voltage divider
𝐸 10
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 2+3+5
=2𝑉
b. Voltage divider rule
𝐸 10
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑅2 +𝑅3 = (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = (3 + 5) ×
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 2+3+5
=8𝑉
Series circuits
Example 8: For the network in Fig.
a. Calculate Vab.
b. Determine Vb.
c. Calculate Vc.
Solution:
b. Voltage divider rule
or
10
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 10 − 2 × =8𝑉
2+3+5
Series circuits
Example 8: For the network in Fig.
a. Calculate Vab.
b. Determine Vb.
c. Calculate Vc.
Solution:
c.

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0 𝑉
Series circuits
Ground connection awareness
The placement of the ground connection will not affect the magnitude or polarity of
the voltage across an element, but it may have a significant impact on the voltage
from any point in the network to ground.
Example 9: For the series network of Fig. , determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltage Vb.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
a. The voltage from point a to ground is directly across the 16 V
voltage source and therefore:
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸1 = 16 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 9: For the series network of Fig. , determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltage Vb.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
b. The voltage at point “b” with respect to ground can be
determined by examining potential rises and drops as we
proceed from the ground point to the desired point on the network.
Starting at ground level, we first encounter a 9 V rise in
potential due to the voltage source E2 followed by a rise
in potential due to the source E3.
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = 9 + 7 = 16 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 9: For the series network of Fig. , determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltage Vb.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
c. The voltage Vab can be directly determined
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 16 − 16 = 0 𝑉
Or using K.V.L
−𝑉𝑎𝑏 − 𝐸3 − 𝐸2 + 𝐸1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −7 − 9 + 16
=0𝑉
Series circuits
Example 10: For the series network of Fig., determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltages Vb and Vc.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
a. Let’s first determine the current
𝐸 72 72
𝐼= = = =4𝐴
𝑅𝑡 6 + 8 + 4 18
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉1 = 𝐼 × 𝑅1 = 4 × 6 = 24 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 10: For the series network of Fig., determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltages Vb and Vc.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
b. 𝑉𝑏 = −𝑉2 = −𝐼 × 𝑅2 = −4 × 8 = −32 𝑉

𝑉𝑐 = −𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = −𝐼 × 𝑅2 − 𝐼 × 𝑅3 = −4 × 8 − 4 × 4 = −32 − 16
= −48 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 10: For the series network of Fig., determine
a. The voltage Va.
b. The voltages Vb and Vc.
c. The voltage Vab.
Solution:
c. 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 24 − −32 = 24 + 32
= 56 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 11:
a. For the series circuit of Fig.
find the voltages Va, Vb, and Vc.
b. Determine the voltage Vad.
Solution:
a. 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0 𝑉
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 240 − 60
𝐼= = = 1.8 𝐴
𝑅𝑡 10 + 40 + 50
𝑉𝑏 = −𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = −𝐼 × 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = −1.8 × 90 = −162 𝑉
𝑉𝑐 = −𝑉2 = −𝐼 × 𝑅2 = −1.8 × 40 = −72 𝑉
Series circuits
Example 11:
a. For the series circuit of Fig.
find the voltages Va, Vb, and Vc.
b. Determine the voltage Vad.
Solution:
a. 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝐸2 = −162 − 60 = −222 𝑉

𝑉𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑑 = 0 − −222 = 222 𝑉

Lecture 5
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
• Two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel if they have two
points in common.
• Same Voltage
• Current is divided
Parallel circuits
• Different forms of parallel resistors
Parallel circuits
• Total resistance of parallel resistors
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑁
Since
1
𝐺=
𝑅

𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑁

Duality
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
Parallel circuits
• Total resistance of parallel resistors

1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑁
Parallel circuits
Example 12: a. Find the total conductance of the parallel network in Fig.
b. Find the total resistance of the same network using the results of part (a)
and using RT equation.
Solution
a.
1 1
𝐺1 = =
𝑅1 3
1 1
𝐺2 = =
𝑅2 6
𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2
1 1 1
𝐺𝑇 = + = 𝑆
3 6 2
Parallel circuits
Example 12: a. Find the total conductance of the parallel network in Fig.
b. Find the total resistance of the same network using the results of part
(a) and using RT equation.
Solution
b.
1 1
𝑅𝑇 = = =2Ω
𝐺𝑇 0.5 𝑆
1 1 1
𝑅𝑇 = = = = 2Ω
1 1 1 1 1
+ + 𝑆
𝑅1 𝑅2 3 6 2
Parallel circuits
Example 13: a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. has the least
conductance? Determine the total conductance of the network and note
whether your conclusion was verified. Solution
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by
applying Eq. of RT.
Solution
Since the 1 kΩ resistor has the largest
resistance and therefore the largest
opposition to the flow of charge
(level of conductivity), it will have
the lowest level of conductance:
Parallel circuits
Example 13: a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. has the least
conductance? Determine the total conductance of the network and note
whether your conclusion was verified. Solution
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by
applying Eq. of RT.
Solution
1 1
a. 𝐺1 = = = 0.5 𝑆
𝑅1 2
1 1
𝐺2 = = = 0.005 𝑆 = 5 𝑚𝑆
𝑅2 200
1 1
𝐺3 = = = 0.001 𝑆 = 1 𝑚𝑆
𝑅3 1000
Parallel circuits
Example 13: a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. has the
least conductance? Determine the total conductance of the network and
note whether your conclusion was verified. Solution
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by
applying Eq. of RT.
Solution
a.𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3
= 0.5 𝑆 + 5 𝑚𝑆 + 1 𝑚𝑆
= 500 𝑚𝑆 + 5 𝑚𝑆 + 1 𝑚𝑆
= 506 𝑚𝑆
Parallel circuits
Example 13: a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. has the
least conductance? Determine the total conductance of the network and
note whether your conclusion was verified. Solution
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by
applying Eq. of RT.
Solution
1 1
b. 𝑅𝑇 = = = 1.976 Ω
𝐺𝑇 506 𝑚𝑆
Parallel circuits
Example 13: a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. has the least
conductance? Determine the total conductance of the network and note
whether your conclusion was verified. Solution
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part (a) and by
applying Eq. of RT.
Solution
1 1
b. 𝑅𝑇 = 1 1 1 = 1 1 1
+ + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 2 200 1000
1
=
0.5 𝑆 + 0.005 𝑆 + 0.001 𝑆
1
= = 1.976 Ω
0.506 𝑆
Parallel circuits
Example 14: Find the total resistance of the configuration in Fig.
Solution
1 1
b. 𝑅𝑇 = 1 1 1 =1 1 1
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
+ +
1 4 5

1
=
1 𝑆 + 0.25 𝑆 + 0.2 𝑆

1
= ≅ 0.69 Ω
1.45 𝑆
Parallel circuits
Remarks
• The total resistance of parallel resistors is always less than the value of
the smallest resistor.
• If the smallest resistance of a parallel combination is much smaller
than that of the other parallel resistors, the total resistance will be very
close to the smallest resistance value.
Parallel circuits
Example 15:
a. What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω in parallel
with the parallel resistors of Example 12 as shown in Fig. ?
b. What is the effect of adding a parallel 1 Ω resistor to the
configuration in Fig. ?
Parallel circuits
Example 15:
a. What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω in parallel
with the parallel resistors of Example 12 as shown in Fig. ?
Solution
a.
1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1
= =
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
3 6 100 3 6 100
1 1
= =
0.333 𝑆 + 0.167 𝑆 + 0.01 𝑆 0.510 𝑆
= 1.96 Ω
Parallel circuits
Example 15:
a. What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω in parallel
with the parallel resistors of Example 12 as shown in Fig. ?
Solution
a.
𝑅𝑇 = 1.96 Ω
Smaller than the least resistance 3Ω
When only R1 and R2 where in
Parallel (i.e RT=2 Ω)
Parallel circuits
Example 15:
a. What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω in parallel
with the parallel resistors of Example 12 as shown in Fig. ?
Solution
b. When increasing R4 = 1Ω in
Parallel ,then 𝑅𝑇 < 𝑅4
1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1 1
+ + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
1
=
1 1 1 1
+ + +
3 6 100 1
1 1
= =
0.333 𝑆 + 0.167 𝑆 + 0.01 𝑆 + 1 𝑆 1.510 𝑆
= 0.66 Ω
Parallel circuits
Note:
The total resistance of parallel resistors will always drop as new
resistors are added in parallel, irrespective of their value.
Parallel circuits
Special case: equal Parallel resistors

1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1 1
+ + +⋯+
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝑁
1 𝑅
𝑅𝑇 = =
1
𝑁( ) 𝑁
𝑅
The total resistance of N parallel resistors of equal value is the
resistance of one resistor divided by the number (N) of parallel resistors.
Parallel circuits
Example 16: Find the total resistance of the parallel resistors in Fig.
Solution

1 𝑅 12
𝑅𝑇 = = = =4Ω
1
𝑁( ) 𝑁 3
𝑅
Parallel circuits
Example 16: Find the total resistance for the configuration in Fig.
Solution
Parallel circuits
Example 16: Find the total resistance for the configuration in Fig.
Solution

1 𝑅 2
𝑅𝑇 = = = = 0.5 Ω
1
𝑁( ) 𝑁 4
𝑅
Parallel circuits
Special case: two Parallel resistors

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅2 1 𝑅1 1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= + = + =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1

𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The total resistance of two parallel resistors is simply the product of their values
divided by their sum.
Parallel circuits
Example 17: Determine the total resistance for the parallel combination
in Fig.
Solution
′
𝑅1 𝑅2 1×4
𝑅𝑇 = = = 0.8 Ω,
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1 + 4

𝑅𝑇′ 𝑅3 0.8 × 5 4
𝑅𝑇 = ′ = = = 0.69 Ω
𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅3 0.8 + 5 5.8
Parallel circuits
Parallel resistors can be interchanged without affecting the total
resistance.
Example 18: Determine the total resistance of the parallel elements
in Fig.
Solution
Parallel circuits
Example 18: Determine the total resistance of the parallel elements
in Fig.
Solution
Parallel circuits
Example 18: Determine the total resistance of the parallel elements
in Fig.
Solution
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
• The voltage is always the same across parallel elements.
• If two elements are in parallel, the voltage across them must be the
same. However, if the voltage across two neighboring elements is the
same, the two elements may or may not be in parallel.
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
• The voltage is always the same across parallel elements.
• If two elements are in parallel, the voltage across them must be the
same. However, if the voltage across two neighboring elements is the
same, the two elements may or may not be in parallel.
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
• For single-source parallel networks, the source current (Is) is always
equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
• For a parallel circuit, the source current equals the sum of the branch
currents, while for a series circuit, the applied voltage equals the sum
of the voltage drops.
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
• For single-source parallel networks, the source current (Is) is always
equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
Example 19: For the parallel network in Fig. :
a. Find the total resistance.
b. Calculate the source current.
c. Determine the current through each parallel branch.
Solution
𝑅2 𝑅1 18×9
a. 𝑅𝑇 = = =6Ω
𝑅1 +𝑅2 18+9
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
Example 19: For the parallel network in Fig. :
a. Find the total resistance.
b. Calculate the source current.
c. Determine the current through each parallel branch.
Solution
b. Applying Ohm’s law
𝐸 27
𝐼𝑠 = = = 4.5 𝐴
𝑅𝑇 6
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
Example 19: For the parallel network in Fig. :
a. Find the total resistance.
b. Calculate the source current.
c. Determine the current through each parallel branch.
Solution
c. Applying Ohm’s law
𝑉1 𝐸 27
𝐼1 = = = =3𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅1 9
𝑉2 𝐸 27
𝐼2 = = = = 1.5 𝐴
𝑅2 𝑅2 18
Parallel circuits
Parallel circuits
Example 19: For the parallel network in Fig. :
a. Find the total resistance.
b. Calculate the source current.
c. Determine the current through each parallel branch.
Solution
c. Applying Ohm’s law
𝑉1 𝐸 27 𝑉2 𝐸 27
𝐼1 = = = = 3 𝐴, 𝐼2 = = = = 1.5 𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅1 9 𝑅2 𝑅2 18
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑠