THERMAL POWER

CHAPTER-4: I.C. ENGINE (5th SEM, DMEP)

Pijush Kanti Mondal
Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering
Gaighata Government Polytechnic

4.1. INTRODUCTION

A device which transforms one form of energy into the other form is called Engine. And the
engine which transforms chemical energy of fuel into thermal energy and subsequently for
producing mechanical work is called Heat Engine. Based on the mechanism used for adding
thermal energy heat engine can be classified into the following:
(a) External combustion engine
(b) Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine have combustion occuring outside engine and adding heat to the
working fluid used in the engine. Whereas, internal combustion engines have combustion
occuring in engine itself and heat released during combustion is directly utilized for getting shaft
work.
Internal combustion engines have numerous advantages over external combustion engines such
as
(i) lower weight to power output ratio,
(ii) simplicity,
(iii) smaller initial cost, and
(iv) higher efficiency etc.
Due to indirect heat transfer the external combustion engines permit for the use of any cheaper
fuel such as coal, wood, oil etc. for combustion.
Internal combustion engines are exhaustively used in automobiles, gas turbine etc. and external
combustion engines are used in steam turbine, steam engine, nuclear power plant etc. Internal
combustion engines are efficient than external combustion engines and also are smaller than
external combustion engine of similar capacity.
IC Engine and its Pollution Control

4.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

Internal combustion engines can be classified on the following basis.

(a) Based on thermodynamic cycle:

(i) Engines work on Otto cycle (‘Spark-Ignition engine’)
(ii) Engines work on Diesel or Dual cycle (‘Compression-Ignition engine’)

(b) Based on number of strokes:

(i) Two stroke engines
(ii) Four stroke engines

(c) Based on mechanism of ignition:

(i) Spark ignition engines
(ii) Compression ignition engines.

(d) Based on type of fuel used:

(i) Petrol engines (petrol being used as fuel)
(ii) Gas engines (gaseous fuel being used)
(iii) Diesel engines (diesel being used as fuel)
(iv)Multi-fuel engines (more than one fuel being used)

(e) Based on type of motion:

(i) Reciprocating engines
(ii) Rotary engines

(f) Based on type of cooling:

(i) Air cooled engines
(ii) Water cooled engines

(g) Based on cylinder arrangement:

(i) Opposed cylinder engines
(ii) Inclined cylinder engines
(iii) V-shaped cylinder arrangement.

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4.3. COMPONENTS AND TERMINOLOGY OF IC ENGINE

Figure 1 shows the main important components of an internal combustion engine. Some of the
basic components and generally used terms in internal combustion engines are discussed below.
Fuel Injector/

Fig. 1: Internal combustion engine

1. Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical space inside for piston to make
reciprocating motion. Upper portion of cylinder which covers it from the top is called cylinder
head. This is manufactured by casting process and materials used are cast iron or alloy steel.
2. Piston and Piston rings: Piston is a cylindrical part which reciprocates inside the cylinder and
is used for doing work and getting work. Piston has piston rings tightly fitted in groove around
piston and provides a tight seal so as to prevent leakage across piston and cylinder wall during
piston’s reciprocating motion. Pistons are manufactured by casting or forging process. Pistons
are made of cast iron, aluminum alloy. Piston rings are made of silicon, cast iron, steel alloy by
casting process.
3. Combustion space: It is the space available between the cylinder head and top of piston when
piston is at farthest position from crankshaft (TDC).
4. Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting intake system to the inlet valve upon
cylinder.
Through intake manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into cylinder.

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5. Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting exhaust system to the exhaust valve upon
cylinder. Through exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of cylinder.
6. Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by valve
operating mechanism comprising of cam, camshaft, follower, valve rod, rocker arm, valve spring
etc. Valves are generally of spring loaded type and made out of special alloy steels by forging
process.
7. Spark plug: In SI engine, an external ignitor used for initiating combustion process. This
ignitor is called spark plug. Spark plug is activated by electrical energy fed by electrical system
with engine. It delivers spark with suitable energy to initiate combustion at appropriate time for
suitable duration.
8. Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft. Bearings are made of white metal
leaded bronze.
9. Connecting rod: It is the member connecting piston and crankshaft. It has generally I section
and is made of steel by forging process.
10. Crank: It is the rigid member connecting the crankshaft and connecting rod. Crank is
mounted on crankshaft. Crank transfers motion from connecting rod to crankshaft as it is linked
to connecting rod through crank pin.
11. Crankshaft: It is the shaft at which useful positive work is available from the piston-cylinder
arrangement. Reciprocating motion of piston gets converted into rotary motion of crankshaft.
Crankshaft are manufactured by forging process from alloy steel.
12. Crankcase: Crankcase actually acts like a sump housing crank, crankshaft, connecting rod
and is attached to cylinder. These are made of aluminium alloy, steel, cast iron etc. by casting
process.
13. Gudgeon pin: It is the pin joining small end of the connecting rod and piston. This is made
of steel by forging process.
14. Cams and Camshafts: Cams are mounted upon camshaft for opening and closing the valves
at right timings and for correct duration. Camshaft gets motion from crankshaft through timing
gears.
15. Carburetor: Carburetor is device to prepare the air fuel mixture in right proportion and
supply at right time.
16. Bore: It is nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
17. Piston area: It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to bore.

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18. Stroke: It is the nominal distance travelled by the piston between two extreme positions in
the
19. Dead centre: It refers to the extreme end positions inside the cylinder at which piston
reverses it’s motion. Thus, there are two dead centres in cylinder, called as ‘top dead centre’ or
‘inner dead centre’ and ‘bottom dead centre’ or ‘outer dead centre’.
Top dead centre (TDC) is the farthest position of piston from crankshaft.
Bottom dead centre (BDC) refers to the closed position of piston from crankshaft.
20. Swept volume: It is the volume swept by piston while travelling from one dead centre to the
other. It may also be called stroke volume or displacement volume.
Mathematically, Swept volume = Piston area × Stroke
21. Clearance volume: It is the volume space above the piston inside cylinder, when piston is at
top dead centre. It is provided for cushioning considerations and depends, largely upon
compression ratio.
22. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when piston is at BDC to the
clearance volume.

Clearance volume + Swept volume

Compression ratio =
Clearance volume

4.4. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IC ENGINE

4.4.1. Four-Stroke Engine Working Principle
Four-stroke engine works on the following sequence of operations as shown in Fig. 2: (a) Intake
or suction stroke, (b) Compression stroke, (c) Expansion or power stroke and (d) Exhaust stroke

(a) Intake stroke that draws air (mixture of fuel and air in case of petrol engine) into the
cylinder. Let us start with piston at TDC, state 1. As piston moves from TDC to BDC, the
inlet valve gets opened and fresh air enters the cylinder. This supply of air (air-fuel
mixture for petrol engine) into cylinder is called suction process or suction stroke during
which inlet valve is open while exhaust valve remains closed.

(b) Compression stroke: After the piston reaches BDC, it reverses its motion and moves
towards TDC. During this piston travel both, inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
Thus, the air-fuel mixture inside cylinder gets compressed till piston reaches TDC. This
is the second stroke and called compression stroke or compression process.

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(c) Expansion or power stroke: Now highly compressed air (air-fuel mixture for petrol
engine) is available inside the cylinder and ready for combustion. At the end of the
compression stroke, fuel is injected and combustion of diesel fuel takes place in case of
diesel engine. In case of petrol engine, when piston at TDC, the spark plug is activated
and it releases spark for igniting air-fuel mixture. Due to this release of fuel energy, the
combustion products try to expand and piston moves from TDC to BDC. During this
travel the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. This stroke is called expansion stroke
or power stroke or expansion process. This is the stroke accompanied by positive work
available at shaft.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 2: Working processes of a four-stroke engine

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(d) Exhaust stroke: Now while piston is at BDC the exhaust valve gets opened and
combustion products are exhausted out while piston travels from BDC to TDC. This is
called exhaust stroke.

Here we have seen that only expansion stroke is accompanied by the production of
positive work out of the four strokes, i.e., suction, compression, expansion and exhaust
strokes. The rest three strokes are work absorbing strokes. Work requirement for the three
strokes is met from the work available during expansion stroke. For storing the excess
energy and releasing it when required, a flywheel is mounted over the crank shsaft. Cycle
gets completed in two revolutions of crankshaft.

4.4.2. Two-Stroke Engine Working Principle

Two-stroke engine is a modified form of four-stroke engine where all the four processes
required for completion of one cycle of the engine get completed in two strokes. Thus,
obviously in each stroke two processes get completed. Figure 3 shows the line diagram of
two-stroke engine.
General arrangement shows that here there are no valves as in case of four-stroke
engines, instead it has exhaust and suction ports. Piston has a projection on its top, which
acts like deflector. Mixture of air-fuel goes into crank case first and then gets transferred
to top of piston at appropriate time. Consider the movement of piston from TDC to BDC.
When piston reverses its motion from BDC to TDC then the suction port gets uncovered
and fresh mixture enters and goes into crank case. With piston moving from TDC to BDC
and during covered position of suction port the mixture gets transferred to the top of
piston through transfer port. Upon reversal during piston travelling from BDC to TDC,
the air fuel mixture on top of piston gets compressed and subsequently gets ignited by
spark from spark plug.
The combustion of fuel-air mixture results in release of excessive energy which forces
piston to move from TDC to BDC. Simultaneously, as piston uncovers exhaust port the
burnt gases go out through exhaust port. Again when piston reaches BDC it reverses its
motion and during travel from BDC to TDC the suction takes place as explained above at
the bottom of piston while compression of fuel air mixture takes place on top of piston.
Thus, suction and compression, both processes get completed during travel of piston from
BDC to TDC. Expansion and exhaust processes occur during travel of piston from TDC
to BDC along with transfer of fresh fuel air mixture from crankcase to top of piston. Here
all four processes occur during two strokes and one revolution of crank shaft.

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Compression Combustion,
Ports closed expansion
Air inducted into Ports closed
crankcase

Exhaust Scavenging
Intake port Intake
closed Ports open
Reed valve shut

Fig. 3: Working principle of two-stroke IC engine

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Table 1: Comparisons of petrol engine and diesel engine

Sl. No. Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

1 It works on Otto cycle It works on Diesel/Dual cycle
2 Compression ratio is from 5 to 15. Compression ratio is from 12 to 30.
3 Petrol (Gasoline) is used as fuel. Diesel is used as fuel.
4 A mixture of air and fuel is sucked inside Air alone is sucked during suction process.
the cylinder during suction process.
5 Carburetor is required for preparing air- Carburetor is not required.
fuel mixture.
6 Spark plug is required to initiate Ignition of fuel takes place on its’ own due
combustion. to high temperature of air inside cylinder.
7 Combustion takes place isochorically Combustion takes place isobarically.
8 Due to low compression ratio the engine To withstand high Compression ratio the
structure is light. engine structure is sturdy.
9 Efficiency is low. Efficiency is high.
10 Generally used in 2-wheeler automobiles Generally used in 4 wheelers and bigger
and smaller and lighter engines. engines.

Table 2: Comparisons of two-stroke engine and four-stroke engine

Sl. No. Two-stroke engine Four-stroke engine

1 One cycle is completed in one One cycle is completed in two
revolution of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft.
2 Power stroke is available in each Power stroke is available in
revolution of crankshaft. alternate revolution of crankshaft.
3 Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.
4 Lighter flywheel is required due Heavier flywheel is required due to
to more uniform torque available. less uniform torque available.
5 Engine is compact and light in Engine is heavy.
weight.
6 Valves are not required. Complex valve operating
mechanism is required.
7 Cost is low. Cost is high.
8 Used in light vehicles and small Used in heavy duty vehicles and
engines. bigger engines.

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4.5. INDICATOR DIAGRAM

Indicator diagram is the graphical presentation of pressure and volume variations occurring
inside cylinder during engine operation. For getting the indicator diagram, indicator or indicator
diagram mechanism is put over the IC engine head and real variation of pressure and volume
inside the engine cylinder is obtained.
4.5.1. Indicator diagram for a four stroke cycle IC engine
An indicator diagram for four-stroke internal combustion engine is shown in Fig. 4 along with
the four different processes. The suction stroke line lies below the atmospheric pressure line. It is
this pressure difference, which makes the fuel-air mixture to flow into the engine cylinder. The
inlet valve offers some resistance to the incoming charge. Because of which, the charge cannot
enter suddenly into the engine cylinder. As a result of this, pressure inside the cylinder remains
somewhat below the atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke.

(b)
(a) p

Fig. 4: Indicator diagrams for a four-stroke (a) petrol engine and (b) diesel engine

The compression stroke shows that the inlet valve closes (lVC) a little beyond BDC. At the end
of this stroke, there is an increase in the pressure inside the engine cylinder. Shortly before the
end of compression stroke (i.e. TDC), the charge is ignited (lGN) with the help of spark plug.
The sparking suddenly increases pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. But the
volume, practically, remains constant. The expansion or power stroke is shown in which the
exhaust valve opens (EVO) a little before BDC. Now the burnt gases are exhausted into the
atmosphere through the exit valve. The exhaust stroke lies above the atmospheric pressure line. It
is this pressure difference, which makes the burnt gases to flow out of the engine cylinder. The
exhaust valve offers some resistance to the outgoing burnt gases. That is why the burnt gases
cannot escape suddenly from the engine cylinder. As a result, pressure inside the cylinder
remains somewhat above the atmospheric pressure line during the exhaust stroke.

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4.5.2. Indicator diagram for two stroke cycle diesel engine

The actual indicator diagram for a two-stroke cycle diesel engine is shown in Fig. 5. The suction
is shown by the line from the instant transfer port opens (TPO) to transfer port closes (TPC). We
know that during the suction stage, the exhaust port is also open. In the first half of suction stage,
the volume: of air and burnt gases increases. This happens as :the piston moves from BDC. In the
second half of the suction stage, the volume of air and burnt gases decreases. This happens as the
piston moves upwards. Then the exhaust port closes (EPC). Now the air inside the engine
cylinder is compressed. At the end of compression, there is an increase in the pressure inside the
engine cylinder. Shortly before the end of compression (i. e. TDC), fuel valve opens (FVO) and
the fuel is injected into the engine cylinder. The fuel is ignited by high temperature of the
compressed air. The ignition suddenly increases volume and temperature of the products of
combustion. But the pressure, practically, remains constant as shown in the figure. The
expansion start and the exhaust port opens (EPO) at the end of this stroke. The burnt gases are
exhausted into the atmosphere through the exhaust port. It reduces the pressure inside the
cylinder. As the piston is moving towards BDC, therefore volume of burnt gases increases and
the transfer port opens (TPO) and the suction starts.

(a)
(b)

V V

Fig. 5: Indicator diagram for a 2-stroke (a) petrol engine and (b) diesel engine

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4.6. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

A graphical representation of the exact timings and the sequence of operations at which the inlet
and exhaust valves open and close as well as firing of the combustible air-fuel mixture is referred
as valve timing diagram. It is expressed in terms of angular positions of the crankshaft.

4.6.1. Valve timing diagram for four stroke cycle engine

The valve timing diagram for a four-stroke cycle petrol engine and diesel engine are shown in
Fig. 6(a) and Fig. 6(b) respectively. In these diagrams, the cycles start by inlet valve opens (IVO)
which is approximately 20 oC before TDC. Different strokes namely suction, compression,
expansion and exhaust are taking place in the sequence. Opening and closing of both inlet and
exhaust valves in different strokes are shown in the figures. The starts of ignition and fuel valve
opening (FVO) for petrol engine and diesel engine respectively are also shown in the figures.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6: Valve timing diagram for four-stroke cycle engine

4.6.2. Valve timing diagram for two-stroke cycle engine.

The valve timing diagrams for two-stroke cycle engine of petrol engine and diesel engine are
shown in Fig. 7(a) and Fig. 7(b) respectively. In these diagrams, different operations like suction,
compression, expansion and exhaust are presented with respect to crank angle positions. Fuel

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supply, inlet port opening and closing, exhaust port opening and closing and transfer port
opening (TPO) and closing are presented with respect to approximate crank angle positions.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7: Valve timing diagram for two-stroke cycle engine

4.7. COMBUSTION IN IC ENGINE

The process of oxidation of fuel resulting into the release of energy equivalent to heating value
or calorific value of fuel is called combustion. Energy released in combustion is mainly in the
form of heat energy.
For combustion process in any engine, following processes are required (i) fuel-air mixture in
right proportion, (ii) initiation of combustion process and (iii) flame stabilization and
propagation for complete combustion of fuel. For complete combustion of every fuel there is
chemically correct fuel-air ratio also called stoichiometric fuel-air ratio. Stoichiometric fuel-air
ratio is around 1 : 14 to 1 : 15 for hydrocarbon fuel. If fuel is more or less than this limit, the
mixture is termed as rich or lean respectively.
Appropriate fuel-air ratio is maintained in SI engines through ‘carburetor’ (the fuel metering
system). After compression of fuel-air mixture in cylinder, the high temperature spark is
generated by spark plug in the compressed fuel-air mixture. At the time of release of spark, the
temperature at the tip of the spark plug electrode may go even more than 10,000ºC.

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Combustion in CI engines differ from SI engine due to the basic fact that CI engine combustion
is unassisted combustion as it is occurring on its’ own. In CI engine, the fuel is injected into
combustion chamber after the compression of air is at end stage or completed. Due to
excessively high temperature and pressure of air the fuel when injected in atomised form gets
burnt on its’ own and burning of fuel is continued till the fuel is injected.

4.7.1. Firing order of IC engine

The sequence of fuel ignition for the cylinders of an internal combustion engine is called
the firing order.
In a spark ignition (petrol) engine, the firing order corresponds to the order in which the spark
plugs are operated. In a Diesel engine, the firing order corresponds to the order in which fuel is
injected into each cylinder. Four-stroke engines must also time the valve openings relative to the
firing order, as the valves do not open and close on every stroke.
Firing order affects the vibrations, sound and evenness of power output from the engine. The
crankshaft design depends on firing order of the engine.
Common firing orders of IC engine are listed below.
In three-cylinder engine: 1-2-3 or 1-3-2.

In four-cylinder engine: 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3.

In five-cylinder engine: 1-2-4-5-3

In six-cylinder engine: 1-5-3-6-2-4

4.7.2. Abnormal combustion

Sometimes, combustion may also occur abnormally. Abnormal combustion is said to occur when
combustion begins inside the cylinder on its’ own before the stipulated time for it. This abnormal
combustion may be due to pre-ignition, i.e., ignition of fuel even before spark plug ignites it and
results in uncontrolled pressure rise. Pre-ignition is initiated by an ignition source other than the
spark, such as hot spots in the combustion chamber, a spark plug that runs too hot for the
application, or carbonaceous deposits in the combustion chamber heated to incandescence by
previous engine combustion events.
Abnormal combustion is also termed as detonation or knocking and can be felt by sudden jerky
operation of engine, excessive noise, reduced power output etc.

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4.7.3. Detonation in IC engines

The loud pulsating noise heard within the engine cylinder is known as detonation (also called
knocking or pinking). It is caused due to the propagation of a high speed pressure wave created
by the auto-ignition of end portion of unburnt fuel. The blow of this pressure wave may be of
sufficient strength to break the piston. Thus, the detonation is harmful to the engine and must be
avoided.
The detonation in petrol engines can be suppressed or reduced by the addition of a small amount
of lead ethyl or ethyl fluid to the fuel. This is called doping.

4.8. SCAVENGING OF I.C. ENGINES

The last stroke of an IC engine is the exhaust, when burnt gases from the engine cylinder are
removed. It has been experienced that the burnt gases in the engine cylinder are not completely
exhausted before the suction stroke. But a part of the gases still remain inside the cylinder which
mix with the fresh charge. As a result of this mixing, the fresh charge gets diluted and its strength
is reduced. The process of removing the remaining burnt gases, from the combustion chamber of
the engine, is known as scavenging.

4.8.1. Types of scavenging

The scavenging can be broadly classified as Cross flow scavenging, Backflow or loop
scavenging and Uni-flow scavenging which are shown in Fig. 8.
1. Cross flow scavenging: In this method, the inlet port and exhaust port are situated on the
opposite sides of the engine cylinder as shown in Fig. 8(a). The piston crown is designed
into a particular shape, so that the fresh charge moves upwards and pushes out the burnt
gases in the form of cross flow.

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(a) Cross flow (b) Loop or backflow (c) Uni-flow

Fig. 8: Different types of scavenging (a) Cross flow, (b) Loop or backflow and (c) Uni-flow

2. Loop or Backflow scavenging: In this method, the inlet and outlet ports are situated on the
same side of the engine cylinder. The fresh charge, while entering into the engine cylinder, forms
a loop and pushes out the burnt gases as shown in Fig. 8(b) .
3. Uniflow scavenging: In this method, as shown in the Fig. 8(c), the fresh charge entering from
lower side of the engine cylinder pushes out the gases through the exit valve which is situated on
the top of the cylinder. In uniflow scavenging, both the fresh charge and burnt gases move in the
same direction, i.e., upward direction.
4.9. SUPERCHARGING OF IC ENGINES
Supercharging is the process of increasing the mass or density of the air (in CI engine) or air-fuel
mixture (in SI engine) which is induced into the engine cylinder. This is, usually, done with the
help of compressor or blower known as supercharger. It has been experimentally found that the
supercharging increases the power developed by the engine. Following are the advantages of
supercharging in the engines.
1. It reduces mass of the engine per unit brake power produced
2. It maintains power of aircraft engines at high altitudes where less amount of oxygen is
available for combustion.
3. It reduces space occupied by the engine (as required in marine engines).
4. It reduces the consumption of lubricating oil.
5. It increases the power output of an engine.

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4.9.1. Methods of supercharging

A supercharger is nothing but an air pump, which receives air from the' atmosphere surrounding
the engine, compresses it to a higher pressure and then feeds it into the engine cylinder.
Following two methods are mainly used for supercharging.
1. Reciprocating type: It has a piston which moves to and fro inside a cylinder. It is an old
method and is not encouraged now a days, as it has the problem lubrication and also, it occupies
a large space.
2. Rotary type: It resembles a centrifugal pump in its outward appearance. There are many
types of rotary pumps like gear type, lobe type, vane type and centrifugal blower type are
commonly used.

2.9.2. Turbocharging
The turbocharger consists of a flow turbine which uses the expansion of exhaust gases to power a
flow compressor mounted on the same shaft. The turbocharger runs using the exhaust energy
(wastage energy) of the engine.
Though application of it improves the power output due to increased volumetric efficiency, it
works at limited engine speed range compared to supercharger. So, supercharger is attached as
additional to turbocharger at lower speed range.

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4.10. CARBURETOR
The carburetor is a device for atomising and vaporing the fuel and mixing it with the air in the
varying proportions to suit the changing operating conditions of the engine. The process of
breaking up and mixing the fuel with the air is called carburetion. There are many types of the
carburetors in use, but the simplest form of the carburetor is shown in Fig. 9. It consists of a fuel
jet located in the centre of the choke tube. A float chamber is provided for maintaining the level
of the fuel in the jet and is controlled by a float and lever which operates its needle valve. The
fuel is pumped into the float chamber and when the correct level of the fuel is reached, the float
closes the needle valve, and shuts off the petrol supply. The suction produced by the engine
draws air through the choke tube. The reduced diameter of the choke tube increases the velocity
of air and reduces the pressure. The high velocity and low pressure in the tube facilitates the
breaking up of fuel and its admixture with the air. A throttle valve controls the flow of the
mixture delivered to the engine cylinder.

Fig. 9: Simple carburettor

4.11. FUEL PUMP

The main object of a fuel pump used in a diesel engine is to deliver fuel to the injector which
sprays the fuel into finely divided particles suitable for rapid combustion of it. The simplified
sketch of a fuel pump is shown in Fig. 10. It consist of a plunger which moves up and down in
the barrel by the cam and spring arrangement provided for pushing and lowering the plunger
respectively. The upper end part of the plunger is cut away in a helix shaped piece forming a
groove between the plunger and barrel, which is the most important one. Therefore, the amount
of fuel delivered and injected into the engine cylinder depends upon the rotary position of the

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plunger in the barrel. When the plunger is at the bottom of its stroke, the fuel enters the barrel
through the inlet port. As the plunger rises, it forces this fuel up into the injector, until the upper
part cut away comes opposite the sill port. Then the fuel escapes down the groove and out
through the spill port so that injection ceases. The plunger can be made to rotate in the barrel and
therefore the amount of fuel to be injected can be changed. When the plunger is rotated so that
the groove is opposite to the spill port, no fuel at all is injected and thus the engine stops.

Fig. 10: Fuel Pump

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4.12. MPFI SYSTEM

There are different types of gasoline injection systems used in S I Engines, and one of them is a
Multi-Point Fuel Injection System (MPFI). Single-point fuel injection has only one centrally
located fuel injector which supplies fuel to all cylinders, but in a multi point fuel injection
system, each cylinder has a separate fuel injector that supplies fuel from the fuel tank to the
cylinders as shown in Fig. 11. MPFI system is used in most of the modern light vehicles
available in the market.

Fig. 11: Multi port fuel injection system

Advantages of MPFI system:

1. The power generated by the engine is more than the carburetion system.
2. The difference between power generated at each cylinder is negligible.
3. The life of MPFI system equipped engines is high.
4. This system is very responsive in case of sudden acceleration or deceleration.
5. Lower fuel consumption leads to better mileage.

Disadvantages of MPFI system:

1. The system is complex hence costly. 2. It requires more space

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4.13. GOVERNING OF I.C. ENGINES

All the I.C. engines like other engines are designed to run at a particular speed. But in actual
practice, its speed changes as the load on the engine keeps on fluctuating from time to time. If
load on an I.C. engine is decrease, the engine speed will increase. Similarly, if load on the engine
is increased, the engine speed will decrease. Now, in order to have a high efficiency of an I.C.
engine, its speed must be kept constant as far as possible, at different load conditions. The
process of providing any arrangement, which will keep the speed constant at varying load
conditions is known as governing of I.C. engines.
4.13.1. Methods of governing IC engines
Following methods of governing are mainly used in I.C. engines.
I. Hit and miss governing: This method of governing is widely used for smaller capacity IC
engines which are frequently subjected to reduced loads. In this system of governing, whenever
the engine starts running at higher speed due to decreased load, some explosion are omitted or
missed. This is done with help of centrifugal governor in which the inlet valve of fuel is closed
and the explosions are omitted till the engine speed reaches its normal value. The only
disadvantage of this method is that there is uneven turning moment due to missing of explosions.
As a result of this, this type of engine requires a heavy flywheel.
2. Qualitative governing: In this system of governing, a control valve is fitted in the fuel
delivery pipe, which controls the quantity of fuel to be mixed in the charge. The movement of
control valve is regulated by the centrifugal governor through rack and pinion arrangement. In
this system, the amount of air used in each cycle remains the same while the quantity of fuel
changes, thus the quality of charge, i. e., air-fuel mixture changes. Whenever the engine starts
running at higher speed due to decreased load, the quantity of fuel is reduced till the engine
speed reaches its normal value and vice versa.
3. Quantitative governing: In this system of governing, the quality of charge is kept constant,
but quantity of mixture supplied to the engine cylinder is varied. Whenever the engine starts
running at higher speed due to decreased load, the quantity of charge is reduced till the engine
speed reaches its normal value and vice versa.
4. Combination system of governing: In this system of governing, the qualitative governing
and quantitative governing are combined together, so that quality as well as quantity of the
charge is varied according to the changing conditions. This system is complicated, and has not
proved to be much successful in practice.

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4.14. COOLING SYSTEM FOR IC ENGINE

Due to combustion of fuel inside the engine cylinder of I.C. engines, intense heat is generated.
About 30% of this generated heat is converted into mechanical work, 40% is carried away by the
exhaust gases and the remaining about 30%, is absorbed by engine cylinder, cylinder head
piston, and engine valves etc. The overheating of these parts causes the following effects:
The overheating may cause even seizure of the piston.
1. Causes thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may lead to their distortion.
2. The overheating damages the lubrication and also may cause carbon deposit on the
engine and piston head.
3. The overheating reduces volumetric efficiency of the engine.
4. It also increases the tendency of the detonation.
In other to avoid the adverse effects of overheating, it is very essential to provide some cooling
system for an I.C. engine. The following two types of cooling systems are used in I.C. engines.

4.14.1. Air cooling system

The air cooling system is shown in Fig. 12. In this system, the heat is dissipated directly to the
atmosphere by conduction through the cylinder walls. In order to increase the rate of cooling, the
outer surface area of the cylinder and cylinder head is increased by providing radiating fins and
flanges. In bigger units, fans are provided to circulate the air around the cylinder walls and
cylinder head. This type of cooling system is used in the engines of motor cycles, scooters,
aeroplanes and other stationary installations. In cold climate countries, this system is also used in
car engines.

Fig. 12: Air cooling system

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4.14.2. Water cooling system

The water cooling system for IC engine is shown in Fig. 13. It is used in the engines of cars,
buses, trucks etc. In this system, the water is circulated through water jackets around each of
the combustion chambers cylinders, valve seats and valve stems. The water is kept
continuously in motion by a centrifugal water pump which is driven by a V-belt from the
pulley on the engine crank shaft. After passing through the engine jackets, the water is passed
through the radiator. In the radiator, the water is cooled by air. After passing through the
radiator, the water is delivered to the water pump. Then the water is again circulated through
the engine jackets.

Fig. 13: Water cooling system for IC engine

4.15. LUBRICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

The moving parts of an I.C engine wear off due to continuous rubbing action of one part with
another. In order to avoid an early wearing of the engine parts, a proper lubrication arrangement
is provided. Lubrication provides the following advantages to the I.C. engines.
1. It reduces wear and tear of the moving parts.
2. It damps down the vibrations of the engine.
3. It dissipates the heat generated from the moving parts due to friction.
4. It cleans the moving parts.
5. It makes the piston gas-tight.

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The following types of lubrication systems are used in I.C. engines.

4.15.1. Splash lubrication

This method is generally employed for lubricating small I.C. engines. In this method, as shown
in Fig. 14, an oil sump is fixed to the bottom of the crank case and the pump is immersed, in the
lubricating oil. A small hole is drilled in the crank shaft and the oil is forced through this hole to
the bearing. The oil is also forced along the connecting rod either through a hole drilled in the
rod or along a small copper pipe to the gudgeon pin and piston. Surplus oil lubricates the cams,
tappets and valve stems. The whole oil is drained back into the sump.

Fig. 14: Splash lubrication system

4.15.2. Forced lubrication

In forced lubrication method, as shown in the Fig. 15, the lubricating oil is carried in a separate
tank and is pumped at a high pressure to the main bearings. It passes at a lower pressure to the
camshaft and timing gears, as the oil drains with the sump it is pumped back by a pump known
as scavenge pump through an oil cooler to the oil tank.

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Fig. 15: Forced Lubrication system (Wet)

4.15.3. Dry sump lubrication system
The dry sump lubrication system is shown in Fig. 16. Generally this lubrication system is used in
high performance engine. In this system, oil is stored in a separate tank and the oil dripping from
different parts of the engine are pumped into the tank by means of a scavenging pump. Thus the
sump of the engine remains always dry. The oil from the tank is supplied to various components
of the engine by means of another oil pump as shown in the figure.

Fig. 16: Dry sump lubrication system

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4.16. RATING OF IC ENGINE FUELS

4.16.1. Rating of SI engine fuels/Octane number
The knocking tendency of a fuel in spark ignition engines is generally expressed by its octane
number. The percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane normal heptane
which exactly matches the knocking intensity of a given fuel, in a standard engine, under given
standard operating conditions, is termed as the octane number rating of that fuel. Thus, if a
mixture of 50 percent iso-octane and 50 percent normal heptane matches the fuel under test, then
this fuel is assigned an octane number rating of 50. If a fuel matches in knocking intensity a
mixture of 75 percent iso-octane and 25 percent normal heptane, then this fuel would be assigned
an octane number rating of 75. This octane number rating is an expression which indicates the
ability of a fuel to resist knock in a S.I. engine. Since iso-octane is a very good anti-knock fuel,
therefore it is assigned a rating of 100 octane number. It may be noted that higher the octane
number rating of a fuel, the greater will be its resistance to knock and the higher will be the·
compression ratio.

4.16.2. Rating of IC engine fuels/Cetane number

The knocking tendency is also found in compression ignition (C.I.) engines with an effect similar
to that of S.I. engines, but it is due to a different phenomenon. The knock in C.I. engines is due
to sudden ignition and abnormally rapid combustion of accumulated fuel in the combustion
chamber. Such a situation occurs because of an ignition lag in the combustion of the fuel
between the time of injection and the actual burning. The property of ignition lag is generally
measured in terms of cetane number. It is defined as the percentage, by volume, of cetane in a
mixture of cetane and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same ignition lag as the fuel
being tested in the same engine and under the same operating conditions. For example, a fuel of
cetane number 50 has the same ignition quality as a mixture of 50 percent cetane and 50 percent
alpha-methyl-naphthalene.

4.17. IGNITION SYSTEMS OF PETROL ENGINES

The ignition in a petrol engine, takes place by means of a spark plug at the end of the
compression stroke. The voltage required to produce a spark across the gap between the sparking
points of a plug, is about 8000 volts. Thus, the ignition system in a petrol engine has to transform
the normal battery voltage (6 to 12 volts) to 8000 volts. In addition to this, the ignition system
has to provide spark in each cylinder at the appropriate time. Following two types of ignition
systems are used in petrol engines.
1. Coil ignition system 2. Magneto ignition system.

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4.17.1. Coil ignition system

Coil ignition system, which is shown in Fig. 17, is also known as battery ignition system. It has
an induction coil, which consists of two coils known as primary and secondary coils wound on a
soft iron core, as shown in the figure. The primary coil consists of a few hundred turns (about
300 turns) of wire. Over this coil, but insulated from it, are wound several thousand turns (about
20,000 turns) of secondary coil. The one end of the primary coil is connected to an ignition
switch, ammeter and battery generally of 6 to 12 volts. The other end of the primary coil is
connected to a condenser and a contact breaker.

Fig. 17:

The purposes of connecting a condenser across the contact-breaker are:

5. It prevents sparking across the gap between the points,
6. It causes a more rapid break of the primary current, giving a higher voltage in the
secondary circuit.
The secondary coil is connected to a distributor (in a multi-cylinder engine) with the central
terminal of the sparking plugs. The outer terminals of the sparking plugs are earthed together,
and connected to the body of the engine. When the current flows through the primary coil, it sets
up a magnetic field which surrounds both the primary and secondary coils. As the switch is on,
the contact-breaker connects the two ends. The magnetic field in coils has tendency to grow from
zero to maximum value. Due to this change in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in both
the coils, but opposite to the applied voltage (of battery). Thus the primary coil does not give the
final value. The voltage in the secondary coil is, therefore, not sufficient to overcome the

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resistance of the air gap of the sparking plug, hence no spark occurs. When the current in the
primary coil is switched off by the moving cam, the magnetic field generated around the coil
collapses immediately. The sudden variation of flux, which takes place, gives rise to the voltage
generated in each coil. The value of the voltage depends upon the number of turns in each coil.
As a matter of fact, the voltage required to produce a spark across the gap, between the sparking
points, is between 10 000 to 20 000 volts. Since the secondary coil has several thousand turns, so
it develops a sufficient high voltage to overcome the resistance of the gap of the sparking plug.
This high voltage then passes to a distributor. It connects the sparking plugs in rotation
depending upon the firing order of the engine. Hence, the ignition of fuel takes place in all the
engine cylinders. The coil ignition system is employed in medium and heavy spark ignition
engines such as in cars.

2.17.2. Magneto ignition system

The magneto ignition system is shown in Fig. 18. It works on the same principle as that of coil
ignition system; except that no battery is required as the magneto acts its own generator. It
consists of either rotating magnets in fixed coils, or rotating coils in fixed magnets. The current
produced by the magneto is made to flow to the induction coil which works in the same way as
that of coil ignition system. The high voltage current is then made to flow to the distributor,
which connects the sparking plugs in rotation depending upon the firing order of the engine. This
type of ignition system is generally employed in small spark ignition engines such as scooters,
motor cycles and small motor boat engines.

Fig. 18:

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2.18. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned
task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical
work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the following:
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.

2.18.1. Power and Mechanical Efficiency

The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear
velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity.
• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as
speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a
tachometer.
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power
(B.P.) and is given by,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵. 𝑃. =
60
Where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is, however, more
than the B.P. and is called indicated power (I.P.). Of the power developed by the engine, i.e.
I.P., some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the
process of inducting the air and removing the products of combustion from the engine
combustion chamber.

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2.18.2. Indicated Power:

It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of combustion
efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.
I. P. = pmLANk/60
Where, pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.
Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean
effective pressure.
The difference between the I.P. and B.P. is the indication of the power lost in the mechanical
components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of mechanical efficiency; which is
defined as follows:
B.P.
Mechanical efficiency = I.P.

The difference between I.P. and B.P. is called friction power (F.P.).
 F.P. = I.P. – B.P.
B.P.
 Mechanical efficiency = B.P.+F.P.
2.18.3. Mean Effective Pressure and Torque:
Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to be
acting on the piston throughout the power stroke. Therefore,
I.P.x 60
pm = LANk

Where, pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,

I.P. = Indicated power, Watt,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.

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If the mean effective pressure is based on B.P. it is called the brake mean effective pressure
(bmep), and if based on I.P. it is called indicated mean effective pressure (imep). Similarly, the
friction mean effective pressure (fmep) can be defined as,
fmep = imep − bmep
The torque is related to mean effective pressure by the relation,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵. 𝑃. =
60
And I. P. = pmLANk/60
Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size. A large
engine produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this reason, torque is not
the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel.
It is the mean effective pressure which gives an indication of engine displacement utilization for
this conversion. Higher the mean effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the
engine for a given displacement.
Again we see that the power of an engine is dependent on its size and speed. Therefore, it is
not possible to compare engines on the basis of either power or torque. Mean effective pressure
is the true indication of the relative performance of different engines.

2.18.4. Volumetric Efficiency:

Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to which the
engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine
cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the swept volume of the
engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can be defined as the ratio of
the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at intake conditions to the swept
volume of the piston.
Mass of charge actually sucked in
Volumetric efficiency, ηv = Mass of charge corresponding to the cylinder intake 𝑃 and 𝑇 conditions

The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an
engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the
power output.
For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more
than unity.

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2.18.5. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of brake
power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the engine
develops power from fuel.
This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines.
2.18.6. Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the chemical
energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output. It is the
true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel (input) is converted into
mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact
that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is not converted into heat energy during
combustion. Brake thermal efficiency
B. P.
ηbth =
mf × C. V.
Where, C. V. = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
• The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms – a part is in the form of brake output,
a part into exhaust, and the rest is taken by cooling water and the lubricating oil.
• The break-up of the total energy input into these different parts is called the heat balance.
• The main components in a heat balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust,
radiation and other losses.
• Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of energy wasted in various
parts and allows us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.

2.18.7. Morse Test:

The Morse test is applicable only to multi cylinder engines.
• In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the output is measured.
• Then, one cylinder is cut out by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector
as the case may be.
• Under this condition all other cylinders ‘motor’ this cut-out cylinder. The output is measured
by keeping the speed constant at its original value.

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• The difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut-out cylinder.
The Indicated Power (IP) is equal to sum of Brake Power (B.P.) plus Frictional Power (F.P.)
• Thus, for each cylinder the I.P. is obtained and is added together to find the total I.P. of the
engine.

The I.P. of n cylinder is given by

I.Pn = B.Pn + F.P. ………. (1)
I.P. for (n − 1) cylinders is given by
I.Pn – 1 = B.Pn – 1 + F.P. ……….. (2)
Since, the engine is running at the same speed it is quite reasonable to assume that
F.P. remains constant.

From Equations (1) and (2), we see that the I.H.P. of the nth cylinder is given by
(I.P) nth = B.Pn – B.Pn – 1
And the total I.P of the engine is,
H.Pn = ∑ (I.H.P) nth
By subtracting B.Pn from this, F.P. of the engine can be obtained.
This method though gives reasonably accurate results and is liable to errors due to changes
in mixture distribution and other conditions by cutting-out one cylinder.
In gasoline engines, where there is a common manifold for two or more cylinders the
mixture distribution as well as the volumetric efficiency both change. Again, almost all engines
have a common exhaust manifold for all cylinders and cutting out of one cylinder may greatly
affect the pulsations in exhaust system which may significantly change the engine performance
by imposing different back pressures.

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2.19. POLLUTANT EMISSION AND ITS CONTROL

The major emissions from internal combustion engines include nitrogen oxides (NO 𝑥), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matters (PM). These combustion products
are a significant source of air pollution, as internal combustion engines are the source of about
half of the NOx, CO, and HC pollutants in the atmosphere. The emissions from engines have a
number of adverse health and environmental effects. The health effects include reduced lung
function, cardiovascular issues, coughs, asthma, and eye irritation.
NOx: Nitrogen oxides are formed during the combustion process, and in the atmosphere react
with water vapor and solar radiation to form nitric acid, a component of acid rain, and ground
level ozone, O3, a component of smog. In addition to creating significant respiratory system
problems, both acid rain and smog damage forests, streams, and agricultural products. As the
formation of NOx is temperature dependent, by reducing the combustion chamber temperature,
its emission level will also decreases.
CO: Carbon monoxide is a product of rich combustion and reacts with oxygen and nitrogen
oxides in the exhaust stream and atmosphere to form smog. When inhaled, carbon monoxide
interferes with oxygen distribution throughout the circulatory system due to its high affinity for
hemoglobin, about 200 times than that of oxygen. Increasing the oxygen content in the
combustion chamber will leads to complete combustion of fuel. Thus CO emission will
decreases.
HC: Hydrocarbon emissions result from release of unburned or partially combusted hydrocarbon
fuels. Hydrocarbons also contribute to the chemical reactions that form ground level ozone.
Various hydrocarbon compounds can cause increased incidence of respiratory problems and lung
cancer. Finally, inhalation of particulates from engines causes increased respiratory problems.
Complete combustion of fuel will reduce the HC level in exhaust gas.
CO2: Carbon dioxide (CO2), a primary gaseous combustion product of internal combustion
engines, is also a greenhouse gas and is in the process of being regulated as well, due to its
increasing atmospheric concentration.
PM emissions are agglomeration of very small particles of partly burned fuel, partly burned lube
oil, ash content of fuel oil and cylinder lube oil or sulfates and water.

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Problems
Example 1:
A single cylinder engine operating at 2000 rpm develops a torque of 8 N-m. The indicated power
of the engine is 2.0 kW. Find loss due to friction as the percentage of brake power.
Solution:

2𝜋𝑁𝑇 2𝜋 × 2000 × 8
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 1674.6 𝑊 = 1.6746 𝑘𝑊
60 60
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 2 − 1.6746
= 0.3253 𝑘𝑊
0.3253
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 = 16.2667%
2

Example 2:
A diesel engine consumes fuel at the rate of 5.55 gm/sec. and develops a power of 75 kW. If the
mechanical efficiency is 85%, calculate bsfc and isfc. The lower heating value of the fuel is 44
MJ/kg.
Solution:

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QUESTIONS:
1. Give classification of internal combustion engines.
2. Give a sketch of simple one cylinder internal combustion engine and label important parts.
3. What is meant by spark ignition and compression ignition engines?
4. Explain the working of 4-stroke SI engine.
5. Describe the working of 4-stroke CI engine.
6. Explain working of 2-stroke CI engine.
7. Explain working of 2-stroke SI engine.
8. What is meant by indicator diagram? Describe the arrangement for getting it?
9. Explain the power measurement using indicator diagram arrangement.
10. Explain the combustion in SI engines.
11. Explain the combustion in CI engines.
12. Describe some IC engine fuels.
13. What is Morse test? How is it carried out?
14. Compare SI engines with CI engines.
15. Compare 2 stroke SI engine with 4-stroke SI engines.
16. Write the names and effects of different pollutants emitted from IC engine.
17. Compare 4-stroke and 2-stroke engine.
18. Compare petrol and diesel engine.

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