Introduction to EE and CoE

Assoc. Prof. Hakan Doğan

[email protected]
 EECS I: Overview and Perspective

The intellectual themes in EECS I are recurring themes in EECS:

• design of complex systems
• modeling and controlling physical systems
• augmenting physical systems with computation
• building systems that are robust to uncertainty
Intellectual themes are developed in context of a mobile robot.

Goal is to convey a distinct perspective about

engineering 2
 Module 2: Signals and Systems
Focus on discrete-time feedback and control.
Topics: difference equations, system functions, controllers.
Lab exercises: motor control

Themes: modeling complex systems, analyzing behaviors

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 Module 3: Circuits

Focus on resistive networks and op amps.

Topics: KVL, KCL, Op-Amps, Thevenin equivalents.
Lab Exercises: build robot “head”:
• motor servo controller (rotating “neck”)
• phototransistor (robot “eyes”)
• integrate to make a light tracking
system

Themes: design and analysis of physical systems

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 The Circuit Abstraction
Circuits represent systems as
connections of elements
• through which currents (through
variables) flow and
• across which voltages (across variables)
develop.

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The Circuit Abstraction: Flashlight

Current flows through a flashlight when

the switch is closed

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The Circuit Abstraction: Flashlight
We can represent the flashlight as a voltage source
(battery) connected to a resistor (light bulb).

The voltage source generates a voltage v across the

resistor and a current i through the resistor.

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The Circuit Abstraction: Water Flow

We can represent the flow of water by a

circuit.

Flow of water into and out of tank are

represented as “through” variables ri and ro,
respectively. Hydraulic pressure at bottom of
tank is represented by the “across” variable P
= ρgh.
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 Analyzing Circuits: Elements

We will start with the simplest elements: resistors

and sources

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 Analyzing Simple Circuits
Analyzing simple circuits is
straightforward.

Example 1:
The voltage source determines
the voltage across the resistor,
v = 1V, so the current through
the resistor is
i = v/R = 1/1 = 1A.

Example 2:
The current source determines
the current through the
resistor, i = 1A, so the voltage
across the resistor is
v = iR = 1 * 1 = 1V. 10
Check Yourself

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 Check Yourself
What is the current through the resistor below?

The voltage source forces the voltage across the

resistor to be 1V.
Therefore, the current through the resistor is
1V/1Ω = 1A.
Does the current source do anything?

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 Check Yourself
Does the current source do anything?

If all of the current from current source flowed

through the resistor, then it would generate 1V
across the resistor.
Since the voltage generated by the current source
is equal to that across the voltage source, the
voltage source provides zero current.
The current source supplies all of the current
through the resistor!
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Check Yourself

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Analyzing More Complex Circuits

More complex circuits can be analyzed by

systematically applying Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL)
and Kirchoff’s current law (KCL).

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 Analyzing Circuits: KVL

KVL: The sum of the voltages around

any closed path is zero.

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 Analyzing Circuits: KVL
KVL: The sum of the voltages around any
closed path is zero.

Example: −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0 or equivalently

v1 = v2 + v4.
How many other KVL relations are there?

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Check Yourself

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Check Yourself

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Check Yourself

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Check Yourself

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Check Yourself

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Check Yourself

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 Check Yourself

There are 7 KVL equations for this circuit.

A : − v1 + v 2+ v4 = 0
B : − v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
C : − v4 + v6 + v5 = 0
D : − v1 + v3 − v6 + v4 = 0
E : − v1 + v2 + v6 + v5 = 0
F : − v4 − v2 + v3 + v5 = 0
G : − v1 + v3 + v5 = 0
Not all of these equations are linearly independent.

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 Check Yourself

But not all of these equations are linearly independent.

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 Analyzing Circuits: KVL

Planar circuits can be characterized by their

“inner” loops.
KVL equations for the inner loops are
independent.

A : −v1 + v2 + v4 = 0
B : −v2 + v3 − v6 = 0
C : −v4 + v6 + v5 = 0

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 Analyzing Circuits: KVL

All possible KVL equations for planar circuits can be

generated by combinations of the “inner” loops.

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KVL : Summary

• The sum of the voltages around any

closed path is zero.
• One KVL equation can be written for
every closed path in a circuit.
• Sets of KVL equations are not
necessarily linearly independent.
• KVL equations for the “inner” loops of
planar circuits are linearly
independent.
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 Kirchoff’s Current Law

The flow of electrical current is analogous to the

flow of incompressible fluid (e.g., water).

Current i1 flows into a node and two currents i2

and i3 flow out:
i1 = i 2 + i3

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 Kirchoff’s Current Law

The net flow of electrical current into (or out of) a

node is zero.

Here, there are two nodes, each indicated by a

dot.
The net current out of the top node must be zero:
i1 + i 2 + i 3 = 0 .
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 Kirchoff’s Current Law
Electrical currents cannot accumulate in
elements, so current that flows into a circuit
element must also flow out.

i1 = i4
i2 = i5
i3 = i6

Since i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 it follows that

i4 + i5 + i 6 = 0 .
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Check Yourself

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 Check Yourself

A : i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
B : −i2 + i4 + i6 = 0
C : −i6 − i3 + i5 = 0
D : i1 + i4 + i5 = 0
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 Check Yourself
These equations are not linearly independent.
1 : i 1 + i2 + i 3 = 0
2 : −i2 + i4 + i6 = 0
3 : −i6 − i3 + i5 = 0
4 : i 1 + i4 + i 5 = 0

Substitute i2 from 2 and i3 from 3 into 1.

i1 + (i4 + i6) + (i5 − i6) = i1 + i4 + i5

This is equation 4!
There are only 3 linearly independent KCL
equations.

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Check Yourself

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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL
The number of independent KCL equations is one
less than the number of nodes.
Previous circuit: four nodes and three independent
KCL equations.

This relation follows from a generalization of KCL,

as follows.
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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can

contain multiple nodes) is zero.

node 1: i1 + i2 + i3 = 0

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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which

can contain multiple nodes) is zero.

node 1: i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
node 2: − i2 + i4 + i6 = 0

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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which

can contain multiple nodes) is zero.

node 1: i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
node 2: − i2 + i4 + i6 = 0
nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6
= i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL

The net current out of any closed surface (which can

contain multiple nodes) is zero.

nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i3 − i6 + i5 = 0

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 Analyzing Circuits: KCL
The net current out of any closed surface (which
can contain multiple nodes) is zero.

nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i3 − i6 + i5 = 0
nodes 1+2+3: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 − i3 − i6 + i5
= i1 + i 4 + i5 = 0
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Analyzing Circuits: KCL
The net current out of any closed surface (which can contain multiple
nodes) is zero.

nodes 1+2: i1 + i2 + i3 − i2 + i4 + i6 = i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 = 0
node 3: − i3 − i6 + i5 = 0
nodes 1+2+3: i1 + i3 + i4 + i6 − i3 − i6 + i5
= i1 + i4 + i5 = 0

Net current out of nodes 1+2+3 = net current into

bottom node! 42
KCL: Summary

• The sum of the currents out of any

node is zero.
• One KCL equation can be written for
every closed surface (which contain
one or more nodes) in a circuit.
• Sets of KCL equations are not
necessarily linearly independent.
• KCL equations for every primitive
node except one (ground) are linearly
independent.
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KVL, KCL, and Constitutive Equations

Circuits can be analyzed by combining

• all linearly independent KVL equations,
• all linearly independent KCL equations, and
• one constitutive equation for each element.

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KVL, KCL, and Constitutive Equations

Unfortunately, there are a lot of equations and unknowns.

12 unknowns: v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6, i1, i2, i3, i4, i5 and i6.
12 equations: 3 KVL + 3 KCL + 5 for resistors + 1 for V source
This circuit is characterized by 12 equations in 12 unknowns!

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 Node Voltages
The “node” method is one (of many) ways to systematically
reduce the number of circuit equations and unknowns.
• label all nodes except one: ground (gnd) ≡ 0 volts
• write KCL for each node whose voltage is not known

• solve (here just 2 equations and 2 unknowns)

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 Loop Currents
The “loop current” method is another way to
systematically reduce the number of circuit equations
and unknowns.
• label all the loop currents
• write KVL for each loop

• solve (here just 3 equations and 3 unknowns) 47

 Analyzing Circuits: Summary
We have seen three (of many) methods for
analyzing circuits.
Each one is based on a different set of
variables:
• currents and voltages for each element
• node voltages
• loop currents
Each requires the use of all constitutive
equations.
Each provides a systematic way of identifying
the required set of
KVL and/or KCL equations.

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Check Yourself

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 Common Patterns

Circuits can be simplified when two or more

elements behave as a single element.
A “one-port” is a circuit that can be represented as a
single element.

A one-port has two terminals. Current enters one

terminal (+) and exits the other (−), producing a
voltage (v) across the terminals.
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Example

Find all the current and voltages for the circuit elements?

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Example : Solutions

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 Series Combinations

The series combination of two resistors is equivalent

to a single resistor whose resistance is the sum of
the two original resistances.

The resistance of a series combination is always

larger than either of the original resistances.
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 Parallel Combinations
The parallel combination of two resistors is equivalent
to a single resistor whose conductance (1/resistance)
is the sum of the two original conductance.

The resistance of a parallel combination is always smaller than

either of the original resistances.
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Check Yourself

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 Check Yourself

Combine two rightmost resistors (series):

Combine rightmost parallel resistors, then the

resulting series.

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Check Yourself

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 Voltage Divider

Resistors in series act as voltage

dividers.

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 Current Divider

Resistors in parallel act as current

dividers.

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Check Yourself

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 Check Yourself

Add the top two resistances to get the series

equivalent: 4Ω.
Then find the parallel equivalent:

Now apply the voltage divider relation:

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Check Yourself

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 Summary
Circuits represent systems as connections of
elements
• through which currents (through variables) flow and
• across which voltages (across variables) develop.
We have seen three (of many) methods for analyzing
circuits.
Each one is based on a different set of variables:
• currents and voltages for each element
• node voltages
• loop currents
We can simplify analysis by recognizing common
patterns:
• series and parallel combinations
• voltage and current dividers
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