94 3.

Applications of the Cauchy Integral

z E C.
The way to prove that ez · ew = ez+w for all z, wE Cis slightly more subtle:
For fixed z, both ez+w and ez · ew are holomorphic functions of w. Thus to
check that ez+w = ez · ew for all w, with z fixed, it suffices to show that
ez+x = ez ·ex for all z, x E JR. Now for fixed (but arbitrary) x E JR, ez+x
and ez · ex are both holomorphic functions of z, and these two holomorphic
functions agree when z E JR. Thus they are equal for all z, and we are done.
The fact that identities on JR persist as identities on C was in past times
dignified by an elegant name: "The principle of the persistence of functional
relations." This name has fallen into disuse in our instance here, where the
whole phenomenon is now perceived as just a special case of holomorphic
functions having isolated zeros. But the idea remains important in relating
real (analytic) functions on JR to their holomorphic extensions to C and it
becomes more profound in situations involving general analytic continuation,
in the sense that we shall discuss in Chapter 10.

Exercises

1. It was shown (Corollary 3.5.2) that if /j are holomorphic on an open set

U ~ C and if fi --+ f uniformly on compact subsets of U, then
8 8
8zfj--+ 8zf
uniformly on compact subsets of U. Give an example to show that if the
word "holomorphic" is replaced by "infinitely differentiable", then the
result is false.
2. Let 'Y: [0, 1]--+ C be any C 1 curve. Define

f(z) = i (: z d(.

Prove that f is holomorphic on C \ )', where i' = {r(t) : 0 ~ t ~ 1}.

In case r(t) = t, show that there is no way to extend f to a continuous
function on all of C.
3. Explain why the following string of equalities is incorrect:
d2
dX 2
11
-1
log lx- tidt = 11
-1
d2
d
X
2 log lx- tidt = 11
-1
-1
(x _ )2 dt.
t
4. Use Morera's theorem to give another proof of Theorem 3.5.1: If {/j} is
a sequence of holomorphic functions on a domain U and if the sequence
Exercises 95

converges uniformly on compact subsets of U to a limit function J, then

f is holomorphic on U.
5. (a) Prove that if U ~ CC is open and connected and if p,q E U, then
there is a piecewise C 1 curve from p to q consisting of horizontal
and vertical line segments. [Hint: Show that, with p E U fixed,
the set of points q E U that are reachable from p by curves of the
required type is both open and closed in U .]
(b) Deduce from (a) that the hypothesis f"Y f(() d( = 0 in Morera's
theorem (Theorem 3.1.4) must be assumed only for closed curves
made up of horizontal and vertical line segments, as discussed in
the text after Theorem 3.1.4.
(c) Let f be continuous on the entire plane and holomorphic on the
complement of the coordinate axes. Prove that f is actually holo-
morphic on all of CC.
6. Do Exercise 5 with "coordinate axes" replaced by "unit circle." What
if "coordinate axes" or "unit circle" is replaced by "smooth curve"?
7. Show that the conclusion of Morera's theorem still holds if it is assumed
only that the integral of f around the boundary of every rectangle in U
or around every triangle in U is 0. [Hint: It is enough to treat U a disc
centered at the origin. Then it suffices to show that the integral from
(0, 0) to (x, 0) followed by the integral from (x, 0) to (x, y) equals the
integral from (0, 0) to (0, y) followed by the integral from (0, y) to (x, y).
This equality follows from using two triangles.]
8. Show that in Exercise 7, "triangle" can be replaced by "disc." [Hint:
Use Green's theorem-cf. Exercise 44 of Chapter 2.]
9. Let L~o akxk and L~o bkxk be real power series which converge for
lxl < 1. Suppose that L~o akxk = L~o bkxk when x = 1/2,1/3,1/4 ....
Prove that ak = bk for all k.
10. Find the complex power series expansion for z 2/(1 - z 2)3 about 0 and
determine the radius of convergence (do not use Taylor's formula).
11. Determine the disc of convergence of each of the following series. Then
determine at which points on the boundary of the disc of convergence
the series converges.
(a) L~3kzk
(b) L~2 kiogk(z + 1)k
(c) L~2(log k)logk(z- 3)k
(d) L~o p( k) · zk where p is a polynomial
(e) 1::~ 1 3k(z + 2i)k
(f) 1::~ 2 k2~ 4 zk (Hint: Use summation by parts [RUD1].)
(g) 1::~ 0 kck zk
96 Exercises

(h) 2::~ 1 ;h(z- 5)k

(i) 2::~1 k-k zk
12. Let g : [0, 1] ---t ~ be a continuous function. Let E > 0. Prove that there
is a real analytic function h: [0, 1] ---t ~such that jg(x)- h(x)! < E for
all 0 ~ x ~ 1. [Hint: Think about Weierstrass's theorem.]
13. Let f : (-1, 1) ---t ~ be C 00 • Prove that f is real analytic in some
neighborhood of 0 if and only if there is a nonempty interval ( -8, 8) and
a constant M > 0 such that j(d/dx)k f(x)! ~ Mk ·k! for all k E {1, 2, ... }
and all x E ( -8, 8).
14. Discuss the convergence of the power series

f (-~ )n z<n2+2n+3).
n=1

15. Give an example of a power series 2::~ 0 akzk which converges for every
complex value of z and which sums to zero for infinitely many values of
z but which is not the identically zero series.
16. Give an example of a nonconstant power series 2::~ 0 akzk which con-
verges for every value of z but which sums to zero for no value of z.
17. The power series expansion for f(x) = 1/(1 + x 2 ) about x = 0 converges
only when !x! < 1. But f is real analytic on all of R Why does the
power series not converge at all values of ~?
18. Suppose that f : ~ ---t ~ is continuous, j2 is real analytic, and f 3 is real
analytic. Prove that f is real analytic. (Warning: Beware the zeros of
J!)
19. Prove the case of Lemma 3.2.6 where

lim sup !akj 11k = 0.

k-++oo

20. Find the power series expansion for each of the following holomorphic
functions about the given point (i) by using the statement of Theorem
3.3.1 and (ii) by using the proof of Theorem 3.3.1. Determine the disc
of convergence of each series.
(a) f(z) = 1/(1 + 2z), P = 0.
(b) f(z) = z 2 /(4- z), P = i.
(c)f(z)=1/z, P=2-i.
(d) f(z) = (z- 1/2)/(1- (1/2)z), P = 0.
Exercises 97

21. Prove that the function

00

f(z) = L 2-j z( 2i)

j:ooO

is holomorphic on D(O, 1) and continuous on D(O, 1). Prove that if w

is a (2N)th root of unity, then limr--+I- lf'(rw)l = +oo. Deduce that f
cannot be the restriction to D(O, 1) of a holomorphic function defined
on a connected open set that is strictly larger than D(O, 1).
22. Prove a version of l'Hopital's rule for holomorphic functions: If
lim f(z)
z--+P g(z)
is an indeterminate expression for f and g holomorphic (you must decide
what this means), then the limit may be evaluated by considering

lim 8f j8z.
z--+P 8gj8z
Formulate a precise result and prove it.
23. TRUE or FALSE: Let f be holomorphic on D(O, 1) and assume that f 2
is a holomorphic polynomial on D(O, 1). Then f is also a holomorphic
polynomial on D(O, 1).
24. TRUE or FALSE: Let aj > O,j = 1, 2, .... If I: ajzj is convergent on
D(O, r) and if E > 0 is sufficiently small, then I:(aj + t:)z1 is convergent
on D(O, r') for some 0 < r' < r.
25. Define a notion of "real analytic function" of two real variables. Prove
that a holomorphic function of a complex variable is also a real analytic
function of two real variables.
26. The functions fk (x) = sin kx are coo and bounded by 1 on the interval
[-1, 1], yet their derivatives at 0 are unbounded.
Contrast this situation with the functions fk(z) =sin kz on the unit
disc. The Cauchy estimates provide bounds for (8j8z)fk(O). Why are
these two examples not contradictory?
27. Suppose that f and g are entire functions and that g never vanishes. If
lf(z)l :S lg(z)l for all z, then prove that there is a constant C such that
f(z) = Cg(z). What if g does have zeros?
28. Let U ~ C be an open set. Let f: U ---t C be holomorphic and bounded.
Let P E U. Prove that

I~:{ (P) I ~~ s~p IfI,

:S
where r is the distance of P to C \ U.