SECTION-A ACTIVITY-1
Aim
To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit
using multimeter.
Apparatus and material
Apparatus. Three carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator
with tapping (2 V, 4 V and 6 V), a step-down transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2 V
and 4 V), a resistor of 100 ohm, a plug key and multimeter.
Theory
Multimeter. It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a Voltmeter and an
Ohmmeter. For this reason, it is also called AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as direct
voltage in addition to resistance. For this purpose, its panel is divided into five different
sections. There are many ranges in each section so that it can measure from micro
(106) to mega (106) units. Rotation of a knob changes the section and the range in one
section.
— Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range, brings shunt resistances of different
values in circuit in parallel with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range, brings series resistances of different
values in circuit in series with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range, brings different resistances in circuit
in series with the multimeter cell.
1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and their
values vary over a very wide range. A color code is used to indicate the value of the
resistance.
2. A carbon resistance has four different concentric colored ringe or bands on its
surface. The first three bands a, b and c determine the value of the resistance and the
fourth band d gives the percentage of accuracy called tolerance. The resistance of
carbon resistor R = (ab x 10c ± T %) Ω.
3. To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is found to be much
more helpful.
4. The following table provides the color code for the carbon resistors:
Procedure
1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R1, R2, R3.
2. Note the color of the first, second, third and fourth ring for each resistor.
3. Plug in the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals. Select the appropriate range,
short the other ends of probes and adjust zero. Turn the terminal marked ‘Adjust’ such that the
needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm.
4. Separate the metallic ends of the probes. Insert the resistor R1 to be measured in between
the metallic ends of the two probes and read the deflection of the pointer on the range
selected.
5. Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R2 and R3 each time selecting the appropriate range
and testing the zero.
6. Now convert using the colour code table, the values of resistors in ohms and write their
values with tolerance.
(b) D.C. Voltage
1. Select a D.C. source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery.
2. Plug the probes black in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts,
4. Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked + and
black on and not the reading.
5. Insert red probe in terminals marked 4 V, 2 V in succession and note readings.
(c) A.C. Volts
6. Turn the selector A.C. (200 Volt).
7. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of potential
drop and note the reading.
8. Use red probe in terminals 4 V and 2 V in succession and record the reading.
(d) Continuity of given circuit
9. Set the selector switch to ohm, range MΩ.
10. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B, full scale deflection indicates continuity.
11. Similarly check in succession the continuity between terminals B and C and terminals C
and D.
Never place the probes ends between terminals connected with the terminals of the
battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzer ,
sounds when probes are connected to ends of components tested.
Observations
(a) For Measurement of Resistance :
(b) Measurement of Voltage:
Inference
1. The measured values by multimeter match with decoded values of resistors.
2. A.C. and D.C. voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage measured
by multimeter.
Precautions
1. Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone through thoroughly as it
is a very handy instrument and is likely to get damaged if carelessly or ignorantly
used.
2. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to the measured
and set it on appropriate range.
3. If range of the parameter measured is not known, start with maximum. For
measuring V, never connect more than maximum 600 V.
SECTION-A ACTIVITY-2
Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
Apparatus and material
Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat,
one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand
paper.
Diagram
Procedure
1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as
shown in diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential
difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.
SECTION-B ACTIVITY-1
Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed
collection of such items.
Apparatus and material
Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.
Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.
1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it
does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base
(B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See figure
(UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or
reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It
conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward
biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then
multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is
because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.
Procedure
1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC
(integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The
probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as common
and P (or + ve).
5. If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On
touching the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.
6. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
7. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-
versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
8. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a resistor.
9. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a capacitor.
Observations
SECTION-B ACTIVITY-2
Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.
Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.
Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the
normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray
(QR) travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the
normal since refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out
through face DC is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram
1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.
2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a
distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).
Diagram
Procedure
Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its
boundary ABCD.
Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the
normal. PQ will represent an incident ray.
Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between
themselves.
See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm
or more apart) such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being
along a straight line.
Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent
emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.
Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle
i. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures
lateral displacement d.
Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral
displacement.
Conclusions
1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).
2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).
SECTION-B ACTIVITY-3
Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).
Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.
Theory
As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, its image
(position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not come
on screen
Diagram
Procedure
Find rough focal length of the convex lens by usual method.
Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle of the optical
bench.
Mount the card-board screen on another upright and keep it at distance equal to rough
focal length of the lens, from the central upright.
Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it on the other side of the central
upright and near the end of the optical bench.
Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the
focus of the convex lens.
The image will be real inverted and much more diminished.
As the burning candle is moved towards the lens on one side, the screen has to be
moved away from the lens on other side, for getting sharp flame image. The inverted
image size increases.
When the position of the candle is at distance 2f from the lens, the screen is also at
same distance on the other side. The image size will be equal to the actual flame size.
Move the candle further nearer to the lens. The screen has to be moved away for
getting an enlarged inverted real image on screen.
As the candle reaches the focus of the lens, the screen may not be able to get its image
which will be at infinity i.e. beyond the ends of the optical bench.
Conclusion
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.
SECTION-B ACTIVITY-4
Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the mirror).
Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.
Theory
Diagram
Procedure
Find rough focal length of the concave mirror by usual method.
Mount the concave mirror in holder in first upright and keep it near one end of the
optical bench, keeping mirror face inward.
Mount the card-board screen on a second upright and keep it at distance equal to rough
focal length of mirror, from first upright.
Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it near other end of the optical
bench.
Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the
focus of the concave mirror.
The image will be real, inverted and much more diminished.
As the burning candle is moved towards the mirror, the screen has to be moved away
from it for getting a sharp flame image. The inverted image size increases.
When the position of the candle approaches centre of curvature of the mirror, the
screen also approaches the same position. The image size will be equal to the actual
flame size.
Now interchange the uprights. Bring candle upright nearer to mirror than the screen
upright.
Move the candle further nearer. The screen has to be moved away for getting an
enlarged inverted real image on screen.
As the candle reaches the focus of the mirror, the screen may not be able to get its
image which will be formed at infinity i.e. beyond the length of the optical bench.
Conclusion
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions
