REN capacity, which has grown

Power Electronics exponentially in recent years. By the end of

2021, REN capacity surpassed 3000 GW,
Technology for with wind and solar energy leading the way.

Large-Scale Unlike traditional fossil fuel-based power

generation, which uses synchronous
Renewable Energy generators to balance supply and demand,
REN systems are characterized by variability
Generation and unpredictability. Large-scale integration
Grid integration of renewable energy (REN) of REN sources into the grid requires
requires efficient and reliable power conversion advanced power electronics for managing and
stages, particularly with an increasing demand for controlling power generation. These
high controllability and flexibility seen from the technologies, including inverters and
grid side. Underpinned by advanced control and converters, are critical for ensuring grid
information technologies, power electronics stability as more REN systems are deployed.
converters play an essential role in large-scale
REN generation. However, the use of power
However, integrating large-scale REN
converters has also exposed several challenges in
conventional power grids, e.g., reducing the systems presents challenges, particularly in
system inertia. In this article, grid integration harsh environments like offshore wind farms,
using power electronics is presented for large- where reliability and robustness are
scale REN generation. Technical issues and paramount. Improvements in power
requirements are discussed with a special focus on electronics, such as high-voltage
grid-connected wind, solar photovoltaic, and semiconductor devices, can enhance system
energy storage systems. In addition, the core of reliability and reduce overall costs. Moreover,
the energy generation and conversion—control for advanced energy storage systems (ES),
individual power converters (e.g., general current though still costly, offer promising solutions
control) and for the system level (e.g., coordinated for managing the variability of REN
operation of large-scale energy systems)—is
generation and improving grid integration.
briefly discussed. Future research perspectives are
then presented, which further advance large-scale
REN generation technologies by incorporating
more power electronics systems
Introduction
Conventional electricity generated from fossil
fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas is a major
contributor to climate change and
environmental degradation. The continued
high energy consumption coupled with the
global depletion of fossil resources has
created an urgent need for sustainable, clean Fig. 1 Global accumulative capacity of REN from 2000 to 2021 based on
energy solutions. Renewable energy (REN) the data available from IRENA and the data represents the maximum net

sources, especially wind and solar generating capacity of power plants and other installations using REN
sources to produce electricity [1], where hydropower includes pumped
photovoltaic (PV), are rapidly emerging as the storage and mixed plants; marine energy covers tide, wave, and ocean

most viable alternatives. Together, wind and energy; solar energy includes solar PV and concentrated solar power; and

solar make up a significant portion of global wind energy covers onshore and offshore wind. Some data (from 2000 to
2011) are from previous reports (https://www.irena.org/publications/).

Electronica 2024 Page 1

This paper will explore the role of power grid use, as well as additional control
electronics in large-scale REN generation, mechanisms to stabilize the power output and
focusing on wind, solar PV, and energy ensure compliance with grid standards.
storage systems, and will provide insights into Advanced power electronics in both systems
key technological advances, challenges, and help manage fluctuations in energy
future research directions. production, ensuring stability and reliability
during integration with the grid. However,
Requirements and Demands of Renewable with the increasing deployment of REN,
Energy Generation power electronics systems are becoming more
Large-scale renewable energy (REN) generation, complex and need to be further standardized
such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, to ensure compatibility across different
operates differently from conventional power manufacturers and technologies.
plants. REN systems are characterized by B. Energy Storage Systems (ES)
intermittent power generation and variability, The integration of energy storage systems
making it challenging to balance supply and
(ES) is crucial to managing the variability of
demand on the grid. To address these challenges,
power electronics, particularly converters and renewable energy sources. Since wind and
inverters, play a crucial role in ensuring the solar energy production are dependent on
effective control and integration of REN systems weather conditions, they cannot always
into the grid. provide consistent power output. Energy
A. Wind and Solar PV Systems storage technologies like lithium-ion batteries,
Wind and solar PV systems are central to flow batteries, and pumped hydroelectric
large-scale renewable energy (REN) systems store excess energy produced during
generation. These systems require specialized peak periods and release it during times of
power electronics to convert energy high demand or low generation. This helps
efficiently and to control the output based on maintain a stable energy supply and ensures
grid requirements. In wind power systems, that grid demands are met without the need
mechanical energy captured by the turbines is for conventional fossil-fuel backup systems.
converted into electrical energy, often using Large-scale energy storage not only supports
synchronous generators. The output needs to balancing generation and consumption but
be managed through a process known as also improves the grid’s resilience. It provides
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), backup power during emergencies and helps
which adjusts the rotational speed and pitch in managing critical operations, such as black
angle of the turbine blades to optimize power starts, where the grid is restarted after a
output. Power converters play a key role in complete power outage. However, current
converting alternating current (AC) electricity large-scale storage systems remain expensive,
generated by wind turbines to direct current with technologies like pumped hydroelectric
(DC) or alternating current (AC) suitable for power being limited by geographical
grid integration. constraints. As more advanced and cost-
For solar PV systems, electricity is generated effective battery technologies emerge, the role
through the photovoltaic effect, where solar of ES in supporting renewable energy systems
panels convert sunlight directly into DC is expected to grow significantly, making grid
electricity. Like wind systems, solar PV integration smoother and more flexible.
systems also employ MPPT control, but in C. Integration and Interconnection
this case, to adjust the electrical output for Requirements
varying levels of sunlight. The power The successful integration of REN into the
electronics used in solar systems typically power grid requires meeting stringent grid
involve inverters that convert DC to AC for codes and interconnection requirements. REN
Electronica 2024 Page 2
sources, particularly wind and solar, introduce introduction of thyristors in the 1950s. Over
variability and intermittency in power the past 65 years, the field has progressed
generation, which can challenge the stability from basic topology and control techniques to
of the grid. Power electronics play a crucial sophisticated applications focused on
role in ensuring that renewable energy efficiency, packaging, thermal management,
systems can meet these challenges by and modularity. This evolution reflects a shift
providing functionalities like voltage and from a function- or mission-driven approach
frequency regulation, harmonic mitigation, to a performance-driven paradigm, with
and ride-through capabilities during grid increasing integration of information and
faults. communication technologies (ICTs) in power
Grid operators have set specific guidelines for electronic converters. These advancements
REN integration, such as the IEEE Std. 1547, form the backbone of renewable energy
which outlines performance criteria for (REN) generation systems.
distributed energy resources. Power In practice, power electronics must minimize
converters, acting as intermediaries between losses, enhance reliability, and maximize
the renewable systems and the grid, must power density by utilizing high switching
ensure that the output power quality meets frequencies. A variety of power converter
standards for total harmonic distortion (THD), topologies have been developed and
typically below 5%. Harmonics can lead to implemented in industrial applications, with
power quality issues, so proper design and two- and three-level converters being the
control of the converters are essential to most prevalent. Notably, three-level neutral-
prevent system instability. point clamped inverters serve as effective
In large-scale REN systems, power voltage-source converters (VSCs) and
electronics can also support additional illustrate the potential of multilevel
functionalities like reactive power technology.
compensation and grid-forming capabilities, B. Conversion Architecture for Large-
allowing renewable energy sources to actively Scale Wind Systems
contribute to grid stability. Advanced energy Recent advancements in power
management systems (EMS), combined with semiconductor and electronics technologies
power electronics, can optimize the have driven significant transformations in
interaction between energy production, wind power systems, primarily to reduce
storage, and consumption, further enhancing energy costs. In the 1980s, a wind turbine
the integration of renewables into the grid. (WT) system rated at 50 kW was considered
Power Electronics for Wind, PV, and large, with minimal use of power electronics.
Energy Storage Systems Today, WT ratings typically range from 2 to 3
Power electronics plays an important role in MW, with some approaching 15 MW.
the expansion of large-scale REN generation Processing such substantial power directly
systems. In this section, the development of without power electronics is becoming
power electronics and converters is presented, economically unfeasible. Consequently, the
followed by a detailed discussion of the role of power converters is evolving from
power configuration architectures for wind, performing single functions, such as soft start,
PV, and ES systems to multitasking operations, making WTs
A. Power Electronics Development and active participants and stabilizers within the
General Converters power grid.
The evolution of power electronics spans over Historically, many wind power systems
a century, beginning with the mercury arc utilized doubly fed induction generators
rectifier and significantly advancing with the (DFIGs), where power electronics were
Electronica 2024 Page 3
partially employed. However, to enhance power generation. Inverters for these
accommodate increasing power demands, configurations are termed string inverters for
full-scale power converters have become individual or multiple strings and central
prevalent, especially with induction, inverters for interfacing with PV arrays. Both
permanent magnet, and wound-field technologies are commonly utilized, and
synchronous generators, driven by continuous while their converter topologies, such as two-
cost reductions in power electronics. Table 2 and three-level inverters, may be similar, the
provides a summary of generator technologies power ratings typically differ.
from various WT manufacturers. Large-scale PV plants generally require
For large-scale wind power generation, significant land area, prompting installation in
efficient energy conversion is crucial for open spaces. Central inverter technology,
further cost reduction. Additionally, which employs several central inverters, is
renewable energy generation must actively prevalent due to its simplicity and low
participate in grid regulation and adhere to construction costs, thereby reducing the cost
strict grid codes, as outlined in prior sections. of PV energy. Multiple string inverters are
Therefore, effective design and configuration also implemented to enhance energy supply
of large-scale WT power systems, which reliability.
heavily rely on power converters, are essential However, central inverters connected to
for achieving high efficiency and ensuring extensive arrays may experience lower
compliance with grid requirements. maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Literature presents numerous solutions for efficiency due to nonuniform irradiance
integrating large-scale wind energy into the affecting power generation. In contrast, string
grid. Most wind farms currently connect via inverters, operating in smaller areas, allow
medium-voltage AC technology. Both DFIG each panel to receive similar solar irradiance.
and permanent magnet synchronous generator Despite this, central inverters maintain a high
(PMSG)-based WTs are commonly overall conversion efficiency, typically
employed, enabling wind farms to achieve exceeding 95%. This efficiency, combined
cumulative capacities of several hundred with the need to avoid shading from nearby
megawatts, such as the Anholt offshore wind structures, encourages the installation of
farm in Denmark, which has a capacity of 400 large-scale PV systems in unobstructed areas.
MW. Importantly, individual WT power To optimize energy yield, multiple PV strings
converters must meet the grid integration are often connected to a single converter with
demands, and additional measures may be a DC combiner box, as illustrated in the
necessary to enhance overall grid figures. Additionally, employing several
compatibility, especially given the limited power converters mitigates the impact of
reactive power capabilities of some systems. power mismatching—such as panel aging and
C. Conversion Architecture for Large- heat damage—and ensures consistent power
Scale PV Systems supply even in the event of string faults. The
Unlike wind power systems, photovoltaic growing adoption of multilevel converters in
(PV) systems consist of numerous solar PV high-power PV systems further supports this
cells or panels connected both in series and trend.
parallel. The power output per panel is And Many More…….
nearing 600–700 W, which remains lower IV. Control and Operation of Renewable
than that of individual wind turbines. Large- Energy Generation
scale PV systems utilize multiple series- Power electronics play a crucial role in the
connected PV panels (forming PV strings) capture, processing, and delivery of various
combined in parallel (forming PV arrays) to renewable energy (REN) resources. The
Electronica 2024 Page 4
performance of large-scale REN power employed in power electronics converters to
generation systems relies heavily on the harmonize the operations of slow-response
design of power converter hardware. Equally SGs with the faster dynamics of power
important is the control applied to these converters.
converters, as it serves as the brain for energy In practice, power converters are typically
utilization, particularly in coordinating controlled as current sources to inject power
system-level operations. into the grid, synchronizing with the grid's
This section discusses the general control and frequency and phase angle in a grid-following
operation of REN power generation systems, operation. However, this approach encounters
highlighting both the basic control significant issues when integrating large-scale
mechanisms for individual power converters REN systems, particularly with the difficulty
and the cooperative functioning of multiple of implementing grid-following control across
converters within large-scale REN generation numerous parallel converters. This can lead to
setups. complex impedance interactions, potentially
A. General Control of Individual REN Systems
As the intermediate stage of REN resources and the
destabilizing the system through resonances.
load or the power grid, power electronics converters should C. Coordinated Operation of Large-
be properly controlled. For one thing, individual power con- Scale REN Systems
verters are assembled with many switching devices, where
the control is used to realize the conversion or condition-
According to the above discussions, the
ing from one type of current to another. In addition, in large- power elec-tronics and the advanced control
scale grid-connected applications of REN generation (e.g., the grid-forming technology) have also
systems, the control makes the power converters multi- been driving the development of more large-
functional, as presented in Section II, and accordingly, scale REN generation systems (in other
various functions can be met, improving the integration words, the scalability of power electronic-
performance based REN systems is increasingly
important). At the converter level, an indi-
vidual REN generation system can meet the
demands of basic functions, as discussed in
Sections II and in the above. Considering the
fast integration of ES devices and systems, an
energy system consisting of various types of
REN resources is approaching. This enables
the intelligent operation of multiple units to
maximize energy profits and increase energy
efficiency. At the system level, various
advanced functions and operation modes are
Fig.General control structure of individual renewable power generation systems. becoming feasible. One example is the active
power regulation at the system level of a WT
B. Grid-Forming Control of Large-Scale
power plant. To enhance the grid
REN Systems
With the large-scale adoption of power V. Challenges and future trends
Although, in this article, many aspects of large-scale
converters, traditional synchronous generators REN power generation have been discussed, there are
(SGs) are being replaced by "nonrotating" still many possibilities for continuous innovation in
renewable energy generation systems. This various technologies. It is anticipated that a larger
transition results in a grid that is either inertia- range of REN resources will be explored soon, where
less or has low inertia, posing challenges to power electronics is one of the enabling technologies.
stability and operation. To address these Along with this foreseen energy transition, concerns
such as efficiency, reliability, availability, and cost are
challenges, advanced control functions can be
Electronica 2024 Page 5
common, and further improve-ments are expected. Furthermore, predictions indicate a potential
Seen from the authors’ perspective, the following points
for further cost reductions .
are of importance for this devel-opment and energy
transition, which should be tackled properly to achieve
To lower energy costs, several measures can
grid-friendly integration of various REN resources, in be implemented, including improving
order to reach a 100% power-electronic-based grid. efficiency and enhancing reliability. These
A. Lower the Cost of Energy objectives can be achieved through the design
Cost is one of the most important considerations. For and control of power converters and the
REN power generation systems, the cost determines overall architecture of large-scale REN
the design and operation of such systems, as systems. This underscores the critical role of
discussed power electronics in optimizing large-scale
REN power generation.
Moreover, advancements in power
semiconductor devices—particularly
regarding materials (such as Wide Bandgap
(WBG) technologies) and packaging—will
significantly enhance converter performance.
From a systems perspective, the integration of
energy storage (ES) devices is also
advantageous for reducing energy costs
through coordinated control, as discussed in
Section IV.
B. Toward Intelligence and Digitalization
The fast development of data science and
information technology enables the
Fig. LCOE comparison of selected REN generation technologies (unsubsidized
analysis) [87]. Here, C&I: commercial & industrial and C-Si: crystalline silicon. First, intelligence and digitization of power
for utility-scale PV power, the low case represents a single-axis tracking system electronics conversion systems. The low cost
while the high one for a fixed-tilt system. Second, for nuclear, it does not reflect
decommissioning costs, ongoing maintenance-related capital costs, or other
of data storage has been another driving force,
economic impacts/subsidies. Third, for coal, the high end incorporates 90% carbon which means that large-scale REN power
capture and storage. It does not include the cost of transportation and storage.
generation systems must become smarter to
meet increasingly stringent demands. As the
A lower cost of energy enhances key component of the physical layers, the
competitiveness, facilitating the acceleration power con-verters will produce a considerable
of phasing out conventional fossil fuels and amount of data that should be processed and
increasing the penetration of renewable controlled by the control chips. In this case,
energy (REN) resources. Many countries and the digital control implemented in low-cost
organizations have established objectives to control chips is essential and will be
continually reduce energy costs. To increasingly adopted, which should offer fast
effectively compare and quantify the expenses dynamics and enable operational flexibility
associated with various types of REN for power electronics systems. In this context,
resources, the Levelized Cost of Energy the conventional linear control systems may
(LCOE)—also known as the Levelized Cost not meet the increasingly complex
of Electricity (LCOE)—is widely utilized. performance requirements. More advanced
Currently, the LCOE of REN resources is nonlinear controllers implemented digitally
benchmarked in Figure 24, illustrating that the are expected.
costs of wind energy and utility-scale
photovoltaic (PV) energy are now competitive Nevertheless, with intelligent and digital
with coal under specific conditions . platforms, flexible energy management, smart
Electronica 2024 Page 6
and advanced con-trol, and so on will be pivotal in the transition to inverter-based
readily implemented and devel-oped. More resources. Consequently, the energy paradigm
specifically, for grid-connected large-scale and grid architecture are undergoing a digital,
REN power generation systems, multiple electronic, and intelligent transformation,
functions can be realized to balance presenting new opportunities for efficient and
production and consumption, e.g., frequency flexible energy generation, conversion,
and voltage control. In this regard, the grid- transfer, and utilization.
forming technology that can achieve fast and However, this transition also presents
effective voltage/frequency control and significant challenges. Large-scale REN
realize power dispatch will be further power generation relies heavily on inverters,
adopted. By then, the coordinated operation which represent a static generation approach
of power electronic-based REN generation compared to the traditional rotating
systems will be even more flexible to synchronous generators (SGs). This reliance
maintain the entire system’s stability. on inverter-based systems leads to a utility
However, beyond these benefits, smart and grid that is either inertia-less or possesses
digital REN power generations are also reduced inertia, making it less resilient to
susceptible to cybersecurity attackers. That is, disturbances. To address these challenges,
the cyber layer has become one of the solutions such as energy storage integration
vulnerable points that can be attacked, and grid-forming control technologies are
possibly resulting in large economical losses. emerging for large-scale REN generation
Thus, it is important to develop smart systems. Additionally, the potential of multi-
solutions to enhance the security of large- energy vector systems through coordinated
scale control can further enhance system
C. Multienergy Vectors and Integration performance.
This article focuses on WT, solar PV, and Moreover, the protection and reliability of the
battery-ES technologies, but additional REN entire REN system is an emerging issue that
resources are expected in order to move requires ongoing research and development in
toward a sustainable and environmental- the future. Addressing these challenges is
friendly power generation system. In that critical for ensuring the stability and
case, large-scale REN generation will become efficiency of the evolving energy landscape.
multienergy vector-based, e.g., hydropower,
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