Lesson 21

Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Aviónica y Conocimiento General de Aeronaves

Dr. David S. Martínez Hernández

Centro Universitario de la Defensa de San Javier

MDE-UPCT, ESPAÑA.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: principle of radar

• Radar concept  laboratory experiments by Heinrich Hertz in
the 1880s.
• RADAR  Radio Aid to Detection And Ranging.
• Radio waves  same properties as light (difference in
frequency).
• Radio waves can be reflected from a metal object and can be
refracted by a dielectric prism mimicking the behavior of light.
• Applications of radar investigated in
1930. British introduced a ground-
based early warning system called
Chain Home  Battle of Britain in
1940.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: principle of radar

• Magnetron (1940)  power at higher
frequencies and allowed radar to be
adopted for airborne use.
• The first application was to airborne
interception: radars fitted to fighter aircraft
improve air defense used in conjunction
with the Chain Home system.
• Since that time, radar has evolved to
become the primary sensor on military
aircraft.
• Widely used in civil aviation as a weather
radar  warn the flight crew of impending
heavy precipitation or turbulence.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: principle of radar

• Fighter aircraft carry multimode radars with advanced pulse
Doppler (PD), track-while-scan (TWS) and synthetic aperture
(SA) modes that impart an awesome capability.
• Larger aircraft with an airborne early
warning (AEW), such as the E-3, carry
large surveillance radars.
• Attack helicopters AH-64  milimetric
radars on top of the rotor.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: principle of radar

• Performance and application
 dependent upon the
frequency of operation.

• Three categories:
 Communications and
Navaids, (CNI).
 Airborne radar.
 Electrooptics (EO)
including visible light,
infrared (IR) and laser
systems.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: airborne radar

• Frequency range from ~400 MHz to 94
GHz ascending order of frequency, typical
applications are:
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: atmospheric absorption

• Constraint depending upon physics  outside the control of
the designer.
• Sea level
• But changes at
different altitudes
• Loss per kilometer at
60 GHz is almost a
1000 times worse
than the loss at
around 80 GHz.
• Peaks of atmospheric
absorption occur at
the resonant frequency of various molecules in the atmosphere:
H2O at 22 and 185 GHz and O2 at 60 and 120 GHz.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Introduction: how it works

• If radiation strikes an object, small
proportion of the energy is reflected
back to the radar  measure distance
to the target.
• Energy can be radiated in :
 Pulsed radar: required range of a
target.
 Continuous wave: required
target’s velocity (Doppler effect)
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Radar antenna characteristics

• Early systems used parabolic reflectors in which radiated energy
is directed towards the reflector from a radiating horn at the
focal point.
• Reflected energy returning from the target is ‘gathered’ by the
reflector and concentrated at the focal point where the horn
feed is situated.
• In recent years, radars have adopted the planar array  beam
shaping by careful phasing within the RF feeds at the rear of the
planar array.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Radar antenna characteristics

• Antenna gain  directional ability
• Gain depends upon the size of the
antenna and the frequency of the
radiated energy.
• Beamwidth of an antenna 
complex function  formation of
side lobes differently helpful 
generally detract performance.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Radar antenna characteristics

• Beamwidth varies according to the mode in which the radar is
operating and the information it is trying to gather.
• Beamwidth does not necessarily have to be the same in both
axes (azimuth and elevation).
 Air-to-air mode  narrow and be equal in azimuth and
elevation,
 Ground mapping mode  narrow in azimuth and broad in
elevation.
• Decibel scale:
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Major radar modes: Air-to-air search

• Fighter aircraft  able to search large volumes of air space to
detect targets.
• Most common  four-bar scan: ±30º in azimuth, 10-12º in
elevation.
• Beamwidth ~3º
• Scan bars on beamwidht or
3 dB apart.
• Target detected in several
passages  confirmation.
• Enemy with radar warning
receiver will know it is
being ‘painted’, and in a
more positive way!
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Major radar modes: Air-to-air tracking

• More information form target  prior to missile launch.
• Radar lock-on the target  tracks target in azimuth and
elevation (and range).
 Range;
 Azimuth;
 Azimuth rate;
 Target identification;
 Range rate;
 Elevation;
 Elevation rate;
 Target classification.
• Radar signal characteristics
warn the target that
engagement is becoming
serious  evasive tactics!
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Major radar modes: Air-to-air track while scan

• Automates the process of deciding which target to engage.
• Builds up a history of the flight path of targets within the scan.
• Predict where the target will be
at the time of the next
observation.
• Statistical filters.
• Digital signal processing.
• Accurate digitized tracking
without alerting potential
targets.
• Many targets (up to 20 or
more) to be tracked accurately
and independently.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Major radar modes: Ground mapping

• Different reflective characteristics of land, water, buildings,
etc.  paint a representative map of the terrain ahead of the
aircraft.
• Digital processing  higher
resolution.
• Antenna scan side to side.
• Beam 3º x 15º approx.
• Fast Fourier Transform allows
for:
 Doppler beam sharpening
 Synthetic aperture radar
Inverse Synthetic Aperture
Radar
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Antenna directional properties

• Approximate beamwidth (deg):
65×λ
θ≈
D
• Antenna gain:
4×π
GD ≈
θB φB
• θB beamwidth (rad),φB beamwidth (rad) in the orthogonal
axis
• Example:
• Figther with radar operating at 10 GHz
• c = f × λ  λ = c /f = 3×108/1010 = 0.03 m = 3cm
• Antenna dimension D=0.6 m  θ ≈ 65×0.03/0.6 ≈ 3.5º
• GD ≈ 4×π×57.32/3.52 ≈ 3368 ≈ 35 dB
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture

Top level pulsed radar architecture:
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: components

• Modulator: determines the pulse shape and the nature of the
radar modulation. Uses the superheterodyne to create the
combined waveform. Modulation can take many forms
depending on the performing function.
• Transmitter: amplifies the modulated carrier signal and feeds it
to the antenna via a duplexer. It also routes the reflected target
energy to the receiver.
• Antenna: directs the radar energy towards the target and
receives the reflected energy from the target.
• Receiver: amplifies the reflected target signal and performs the
demodulation process to extract the target data from the
surrounding noise.
• Video processor: also controlled by the synchroniser
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: pulsed modulation

Width and frequency of repetition is highly interactive with
important radar characteristics  significant impact upon the
performance of the radar.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: pulsed modulation

• Pulse width also determines the range resolution of which the
radar is capable.
• Radar can only resolve to half the pulse width (at a lower
interval than this part of the pulse has been reflected while
part has not yet reached the target).
• 1 µs pulse ~1000 ft  able to resolve the target range to no
less than 500 ft.
• Pulse period affects target ambiguity
one of the
most difficult
choices the
radar designer
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: receiver characteristics

• Detect de target and discriminate from unwanted effects:
 Noise (internally generated or radar transmitter induced or
externally sourced)  minimized by good design.
 Clutter: unwanted returns from the ground and other
sources  filtering and processing techniques.

Noise sources
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: receiver characteristics

• Noise filtering is the main way to eliminate it.
• Parameters like pulse width also are very important.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: receiver characteristics

• Target distance vs. noise

• Receiver threshold
• setting
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: receiver characteristics

• Integration over different pulses
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Pulsed radar architecture: receiver characteristics

• Radar Range Equation:

Ppeak ×G×σ×τ
R≈
4π 2 ×Smin

• R is the radar range (m),

• Ppeak is the peak power (W),
• G is the antenna gain (m2)
• σ is the target cross-sectional area (m2),
• σ is the transmitted pulse width (s),
• Smin is the minimum detectable signal energy (W-s).
• This equation does not take account of pulse integration!
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Doppler Radar
• Three or four narrow, continuous wave radar beams angled
down from the horizontal and skewed to the left and right of
the centre-line:
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Doppler Radar
• Allows to determine aircraft velocity (three components)
referred to terrain.

• Requires a non completely flat terrain (i.e. no calm sea/water o

iced surface)

• Very common till inertial navigation became popular.

• Even less used since GPS appeared.

• Still used in some helicopters at low velocity (air data sensors

non reliable).
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: radar altimeter

Use of frequency modulation to determine target range
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: terrain following radar

• Dedicated radar into a dedicated functional system & autopilot.
• Scans the terrain ahead of the aircraft  receives ground
returns used for guidance.
• Calculates imaginary ‘ski-toe’ profile taking into aircraft speed,
maneuverability, etc.  envelope within which the aircraft will
not be able to avoid the terrain ahead.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: terrain following radar

• Terrain ahead broaches the ski-toe envelope  aircraft pitches
up to rectify the situation.
• Terrain drops away in front  aircraft pitches down until just
operating outside the profile.
• Radar altimeter measurements also fed the terrain-following
system.
• TFR  embedded system
(part of the aircraft primary
radar) or provided in a pod
that is loaded on to the
aircraft.
• AN/AAQ-13 LANTIRN (Low
Altitude Navigation and
Targeting Infrared for Night)
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: continuous wave illumination

• Semi-active air-to-air missiles  missiles that can receive
incoming RF energy and once fired can track and engage the
target.
• Missiles are unable to transmit
 the aircraft radar has to
provide the target illumination
by using a CW illuminator.
• Aircraft radar is locked on
target  it can simultaneously
illuminate it.
• Disadvantage: aircraft radar
remains locked on to the
target until the engagement is
complete.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: multimode operation

• Modern radars (F-15E and F-22)  capable of operating
simultaneously in a number of modes:
 Sector ground mapping;
 Synthetic aperture (SA) spot mode;
 Track-while-scan mode
engaging three separate
targets.
• How  interleafing the radar
modulation required for each
mode on a pulse-by-pulse basis
and effectively operating as
several radars in one.
• Immense flexibility to the
aircraft.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: Target Tracking

• Pulsed radar tracking (radar locked on)  follows and
automatically maintains key data of target:
 Tracking in range;
 Angle tracking in azimuth and elevation.
• Tracking is maintained  radar has ‘target lock’.
 Range Tracking: done
by ‘range gating’ 
automatically tracks
the target as its
range increases or
decreases.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: Target Tracking

 Angle Tracking: radar tracks the angle to the target in azimuth
and elevation  line-of-sight to the target and radar boresight
are kept as close as possible. Three methods of angle tracking:
 Sequential lobing
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: Target Tracking

 Angle Tracking:
 Conical Scan
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Other Uses of Radar: Target Tracking

 Angle Tracking:
 Monopulse most tracking modern radars use it
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulse Compression

Range Resolution: ability of a radar system to distinguish between
two or more targets on the same bearing but at different ranges
𝑐𝑐 × τ
R res ≈
2
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulse Compression

Advantages: improve range resolution and help in extracting
target echoes from noise.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulse Compression

• Fourier Transform  mathematical
relationship that identifies all
frequency components necessary to
synthesize a waveform.
• Frequency related analytical
techniques  manipulate signals
• that are frequency dependent/comprise important target-related
frequency components.
• Fast Fourier transform (FFT)  create a series of Doppler filters
to discriminate a velocity return from ground clutter.
• Digital computing  modern digital radars for Doppler filtering,
Doppler beam sharpening & synthetic aperture radar
• Also used in electronic warfare to analyze the characteristics of
the opponent’s radar systems in real time.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulsed Doppler Operation

• Pulsed Doppler operation  get target velocity
• Drawback  sidelobes collect large amount of clutter
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulsed Doppler Operation

• Pulsed Doppler operation  get target velocity
• Drawback  sidelobes collect large amount of clutter
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulsed Doppler Operation

• Range ambiguities more complex in radar Doppler.
• Significant ground clutter.
 The altitude return on the left;
 The first target, clear of the man lobe clutter;
 The second and third targets obscured by the main lobe
clutter;
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulsed Doppler Operation

• Pulsed Doppler: similar to normal Doppler but with significant
differences  Radar Data Processor, a computer taking central
operation.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Pulsed Doppler Operation

• Pulsed Doppler: similar to normal Doppler but with significant
differences  Radar Data Processor, a computer taking central
operation.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

• Beyond merely increasing the antenna
beamwidth and minimizing the sidelobes.
• Phased array: a number of radiating
elements – effectively miniature antennas –
each of which is able to radiate
independently.
• The relative phase of each element decides
the direction in which the array radiates.
• Planar array antenna  physical phasing of
the individual RF distribution system
shapes the antenna radiating pattern
(analogous to the parabolic antenna).
• Several hundred radiating slots.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

• Slots behave as dipoles.
• Parabolic reflector  physical distance
between the antenna focal point and the
parabolic reflector to shapes the beam.
• Planar array  uses a more subtle technique.
• Carefully arranged series of
feeders, each feeds sections of
the slot array.
• Distributes the radiated energy
across the antenna face:
narrow beam with low
sidelobes.
• No electronic switching 
mechanical scanning for target
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Electronically Scaned Arrary (ESA)
• Relatively conventional in terms of the transmitter and receiver.
• It is the individual phase shifters and radiating elements that
provide the enhanced capability, especially in terms of scan rate.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Electronically Scaned Arrary (ESA): advantages
• Tracking can be initiated as soon as the target is detected.
• Antenna can scan 100º in a matter of milliseconds, whereas a
mechanically scanned array would take 1 s or more.
• Targets may be illuminated even when outside the search
volume.
• The time on target or dwell time may be optimised according to
target type and requirements.
• Specialised detection and modulation techniques may be used to
assist in extracting target signals from noise.
• Improved terrain-following techniques by adapting scan patterns
and beam shaping.
• Permits electronic countermeasures within the field of regard of
the antenna.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Electronically Scaned Arrary (ESA): advantages
• Tracking can be initiated as soon as the target is detected.
• Antenna can scan 100º in a matter of milliseconds, whereas a
mechanically scanned array would take 1 s or more.
• Targets may be illuminated even when outside the search
volume.
• The time on target or dwell time may be optimised according to
target type and requirements.
• Specialised detection and modulation techniques may be used to
assist in extracting target signals from noise.
• Improved terrain-following techniques by adapting scan patterns
and beam shaping.
• Permits electronic countermeasures within the field of regard of
the antenna.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Electronically Scaned Arrary (ESA): advantages
• Removes many of the components that contribute to failures in a
conventional mechanically scanned antenna (rotating waveguide
joints, gimbals, drive motors, etc.,)  improved reliability.

AN/APQ-181 mounted in B2

AN/APQ-164 mounted in B1
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Active Electronically Scaned Arrary (ASA)
• Includes multiple individual active transmit/receive (T/R)
elements within the antenna  transmitter elements are in the
antenna!
• T/R module is a miniature RF
subsystem in its own.
• Control each T/R unit by
software so:
 May be controlled in terms of amplitude and phase 
superior beam-shaping capabilities for advanced radar
modes.
 Multiple independently steered beams using partitioned
parts of the multidevice array.
 Considerable advantages in noise reduction,
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Active Electronically Scaned Arrary (ASA) σ=1 m2 cross
sectional area
target
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
• High-quality radar mapping  topographical features and
potential targets may be identified and classified.
• Ability to resolve very closely spaced objects on the ground.
• SAR: aircraft forward movement is used to create a large
synthetic or artificial aperture
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Advanced Antennas

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
• Pulses at constant intervals, which equates in turn to constant
alongtrack increments.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

(stealth)
• Aircraft designed to minimize the ability of the radar on
detecting it.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

(stealth)
• Factors affecting radar cross section:
 Geometric cross-section  limit on weapons payload and
range.
 Directivity
 Reflectivity
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

Design objectives  most of them reduce aircraft performance!

+ Radar absorbent materials

 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

F-117 intake grill combination of
techniques
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

F-35 intake  more sophisticated
(serpentine-ducted)
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

Antena reflecctions  how to reduce them
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

Radar Cross Section Comparative
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

Reduce the chances that operating radar will be detected
• Reduce peak power by increasing integration time.
• Balance bandwidth against lower peak power. Spread spectrum
modulation techniques.
• Maximize antenna gain  aids detection by foe during
transmission but helps the radar during reception.
• Reduce sidelobes.
• Minimize system losses and noise.
• Use different forms of modulation  undetectable or at least
uncharacterizable.
 Radar systems. Fundamentals and types

Advanced Radar: Low observability

F-22 AN/APG-77 example
• Varying modulation and frequency on a pulse-by-pulse basis.
• Multiple beams in multiple radar modes.
• Able to detect, identify and engage a target without the foe ever
being aware that an enemy is present.