.

Electric circuit is the complete path along which the electric charges flow.
A simple electric circuit consists of a cell, a bulb, a switch and connecting wires.
Cell Switch

Bulb

When the switch is closed charges flows and the bulb lights.
A closed circuit ~ This is a circuit in which the switch is closed and the
current flows in a complete path.
An open circuit ~ This is a circuit in which the switch is open and current
does not flow.

Electric current – This is the flow of charge per unit time.

𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 (𝐐) Where t = time in seconds
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐈) =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 (𝐭) Q=It
𝐐
𝐈=
𝐭
The SI unit of current is Ampere (A).
Current is measured using an instrument called ammeter.
EXAMPLES.
1. Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 72C of charges
flow through it in 20 seconds.
2. Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 300C of charges
flow through it in 2.5 minutes.
3. Calculate the amount of charge passing through a point in a circuit if a
current of 5A flows for 1.5 minutes.
4. A current of 10A was passed through an electrolyte for 1½ hours. Calculate
the quantity of electricity used.
Some common circuit symbols
Cell
Wires joined

Battery
Wires crossing with
no connection
Ammeter A

V Bulb or
Voltmeter V

V Resistor or
Switch

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POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (Pd) & THE ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCES (e.m.f)
The positive terminal of a cell has a higher potential than the negative terminal.
Due to this, current flows from the positive to the negative terminal. The higher
the potential differences the stronger the current.
EMF is the voltage drop across the terminals of cells in an open
circuit. It is the force of the battery that drives the current around the circuit.
V

Pd is the voltage drop across a component in a closed circuit. It

is the part of the e.m.f that drives current across a component such as a bulb in a
circuit.
V

V
The e.m.f is always higher than Pd.
Both Pd and EMF are measured using an instrument called Voltmeter and the SI
unit is Volts (v).
NOTE: In a circuit the Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel with
the cells or other components while the ammeter is connected in series
with the cells .
V

A V

V V

CELLS IN SERIES & PARALLEL CONNECTION

Cells in series
This is connecting the positive terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of
another cell.

If the e.m.f of each cell is 1.5V then the total e.m.f is 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5V
In a series connection the brightness of the bulb increases as more cells are
added.

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 CELLS IN PARALLEL.
These are cells connected positive to positive terminal and negative to negative.

The total e.m.f is equivalent to that of a single cell ie 1.5V. The circuit behaves as
if only one cell is being used. Even if more cells are added, the brightness of the
bulb does not increase because the current remains the same.

NOTE
~ If one of the cell in parallel has less voltage, it will drain the other hence
they shud not be connected.
~ The current produced in a parallel connection is supplied for a longer time
than in a series connection.

BULBS IN SERIES & PARALLEL CONNECTION.

Series connection.

The bulbs divide the voltage from the cells amongst themselves and they have the
same current. If one bulb is disconnected, the other goes off.

Parallel connection

Each bulb has the same voltage as the cells. They are brighter than those in
series. The flow of current is independent ie if one bulb is disconnected, the other
continuous lighting with the same brightness. Parallel connection of bulbs is
preferred in domestic wiring.

CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS

Conductors are those materials that allow electric current to
flow through them eg metals.
They have mobile electrons that can move freely when e.m.f is connected.
In a conductor only the electrons move, the protons (+ve charges) do not move
since they are held tightly in the nucleus.
When a conductor is connected to a cell, the flow of electrons creates an electric
current in the opposite direction.
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 Current flow Electron flow

The electrons flow from the –ve to +ve while the electric currents flows from
+ve to -ve.
While dealing with electricity we only consider the electric current i.e from positive
to negative.
Insulators – These are material that do not allow current to
flow through them eg wood, plastics. They have no mobile
electrons.
Electrolytes ~ These are Liquids that conduct electricity are. Eg
dil H2SO4 ,solution of NaCl

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity can be obtained from cells, batteries, generators and solar
panels
CHEMICAL CELLS
They produce e.m.f due to a chemical reaction between two different metal
electrodes of different rates of reaction and an Electrolyte.
Chemical cells are classified either as primary or secondary cells.

PRIMARY CELLS
These are cells that cannot be recharged once the chemicals are exhausted.
These are two types of primary cells
~ Simple primary cell.
~ Dry Leclanche cells.

1. SIMPLE PRIMARY CELLS (wet cell)

It consists of electrodes of copper and zinc dipped in dilute sulphuric acid solution.
(Zinc is more reactive than copper in the reactivity series)

Zinc plate
Copper plate

Dilute sulphuric acid

When the switch is closed, the two electrodes reacts with the acid and a current is
generated making the bulb light.
The zinc electrode is the most reactive and hence is the –ve terminal and is
Cathode. While the copper electrode being the less reactive is the
called the
+ve plate and is called the Anode
The current flows from the copper plate (+ve) to zinc plate. (–ve)

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 DEFECTS OF A SIMPLE CELL
It has two defects ie Polarization and Local action

Copper plate
Zinc plate
H2 gas bubbles

Dil H2SO4

i) Polarization
This is the formation of H2 gas bubbles around the copper plate.
As the reaction continuous hydrogen gas bubbles are formed on the copper plate
which blocks electrons from reaching the copper plate in the solution.
This increases internal resistance and hence the bulb goes off.
Polarization is minimized by adding a depolarizer eg potassium
dichromate.
The depolarizer combines with the hydrogen gas on the copper plate to form water
which dissolves in the electrolyte.
2H2 + 02 = 2H2O

ii) Local action

This is the eating away of the zinc plate as it reacts with the
acid. The zinc plate reacts with the acid and it is eaten away.
Local action can be reduced by coating the zinc plate with mercury
in a process called amalgamation.
A simple primary cell can also be made by dipping the two electrodes into a lemon
as shown below.
V
Zinc Copper

Lemon

The lemon being acidic acts like and electrolyte.

2. DRY LECLANCHE CELLS

It consists of a zinc case, ammonium chloride paste, a carbon rod and manganese
IV oxide mixed with carbon powder
+ve Seal
Carbon rod

Powdered carbon and

manganese (IV) oxide
Ammonium chloride
paste

Zinc case

- ve
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During the working of the cell, zinc reacts with NHCl paste and is converted to
ZnCl2 and hydrogen gas is produced.
The Manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolarizer by converting the H2
gas produced to water. This makes the cell wet after being used up.
The carbon powder only acts as a catalyst by speeding up the working of MnO2.
The zinc case is the negative electrode while the carbon rod is the positive
electrode.
NOTE: Large currents should not be drawn from dry cell within a short time.

SECONDARY CELLS (ACCUMULATOR)

These are cells that can be recharged by passing electric current through them.
There are two types of accumulators
i) Lead acid accumulators
ii) Alkaline accumulators

LEAD ACID ACCUMULATORS.

A lead acid accumulator consists of +ve and -ve plates made of lead metal and
lead oxide respectively dipped in dil H2SO4 acid. The current carrying capacity of a
battery is determined by
i) The number of plates.
ii) Surface area in each cell.
Caps
Lead IV OXIDE Lead plate
Plate -ve
+ve

Cells with plates

A 12V lead acid accumulator has six cells connected in series each of 2V.
When fully charged, the accumulator has an e.m.f of about 13V while the relative
density is 1.3.
The two quantities that determine whether a battery requires charging are:
(i) E.m.f of the battery~ When the voltage drops to 1.8V per cell.
(ii) Relative density of the acid~ When the RD of the acid reduces to
1.12 due to formation of water.
The accumulator is recharged by connecting a direct current (dc) to the battery
positive to positive terminal and negative to negative terminal of the charger.

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CAPACITY OF LEAD–ACID ACCUMULATOR
This is the amount of current that can be drawn in a given time from a battery. It
is the total amount of charge Q=It and it is expressed in Ampere –hour (Ah).
EXAMPLE.
1. A battery supplies a current of 5A for 10 hours. Calculate its capacity.
2. A battery rated 60Ah is supplied with a current of 4A. For how long will it
work?
3. A battery rated 40Ah supplies a current for 120 minutes. Find the current.
4. A battery supplies a current of 5A for 180 minutes. Calculate its capacity.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF ACCUMULATORS
~ Never short circuit the battery.
~ Do not overcharge the battery.
~ Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long time~ it
damages the plates.
~ It should not be left in discharge condition for a long period.
~ The terminal should always be kept clean and greased.
~ The level of electrolyte should always be kept above the plates
~ It should not be placed directly on the ground. Use a wooden block.
~ When recharging, leave the caps open or loose to allow the Hydrogen and
Oxygen gas formed to escape~ H2 and O2 gas are highly flammable and
hence can explode.
~ Avoid direct flame, since the H2 and O2 gas produced can easily explode.

ALKALINE ACCUMULATORS
These accumulators use alkaline electrolyte (base) mostly (KOH). The common
type is the nickel cadmium or nickel iron.

Advantages of alkaline accumulators over lead acid

accumulators.
(i) Large currents can be drawn from them.
(ii) They are lighter (portable) than lead acid.
(iii) They require very little attention to maintain.
(iv) They can be stored in discharge condition for longer
time without getting damaged.

Disadvantages of alkaline accumulators

(i) They are expensive
(ii) They have a lower e.m.f per cell.

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