Lecture 6: Business Research Methods/Research Methods in Project Management:

Prof P.K.Njenga: 4th July 2024:

Data Collection

Definition

Data collection is the systematic approach to gathering and measuring information from a
variety of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest. Data collection
enables a person or organization to answer relevant questions, evaluate outcomes and make
predictions about future probabilities and trends.

Types of Data: Primary and Secondary data

There are many ways of classifying data.

A common classification is based upon who collected the data.

Primary data: Data collected by the investigator himself/ herself for a specific purpose. Primary
data refer to information obtained first-hand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purpose of the study
Some examples of sources of primary data are individuals, focus groups, panels of respondents
specifically set up by the researcher and from whom opinions may be sought on specific issues
from time to time, or some unobtrusive sources such as a trash can. The Internet can also serve as
a primary data source when questionnaires are administered over it.
Examples: Data collected by a student for his/her thesis or research project. The primary data is
collected by the researcher or the assistants through questionnaires, interview schedules,
observation schedules and tests.
Secondary data: Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources that already exist.
Data collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for
another purpose). Secondary data is collected from documents such as journals, other research
reports, newspapers and books. It is called secondary data because it is collected from existing
sources. Secondary data have had at least one level of interpretation inserted between the event
and its recording. The researcher uses data which has already been collected by others to enrich
his/her study.

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Other examples of secondary data: company records or archives, government publications,
industry analyses offered by the media, websites, the Internet, and so on. In some cases, the
environment or particular settings and events may themselves be sources of data, for example,
studying the layout of a plant.

Tertiary sources of data may be interpretations of a secondary source but generally are
represented by indexes, bibliographies, and other finding aids (e.g., Internet search engines).

Some Advantages of using Primary data:

1. The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
2. There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected for the investigator because he/she
collects own data
3. If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period
Some Advantages of using Secondary data:
1. The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection
2. It is less expensive
3. The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data.
Some disadvantages of using Secondary data:
1. The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific data about something is required,
for
instance).
2. One can only hope that the data is of good quality
3. Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about something is not possible

Data Collection Tools:

Data collection instrument/tool refers to the device used to collect data such as
questionnaires, interview schedules etc. Data collection tools differ depending on the
objectives of the study. Some researches may require the use of only one method of collecting
data while others require the use of different tools. Use of many tools is referred to as multi-
technique approach. Use of many tools to collect data helps to increase the amount of data collected

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and its accuracy. It also provides opportunity for the researcher to compare information from
different sources.
Factors influencing selection of data collection tools:
Before deciding on the instruments to use to collect data, the researcher needs to analyze the
problem and the objectives of the study. These will guide her to identify the type of data to be
collected and the tools to use. Choice of data collection tools is influenced by various factors which
include:
1. The type of study
 If for example the researcher is doing a survey, he/she requires to collect a lot of
data from very many people within a short period. The data collected is not detailed.
It requires people to give their opinions, impressions, views and feelings. The
questionnaire and interview schedules are the best tools to use for survey research.
Interview schedules for survey research are done through telephones, sms and radio
calls.
 If the researcher is doing a case study, he/she requires to collect detailed data from
a small sample. The best tools to use for this will be observation schedules,
interview schedules
2. Characteristics of the sample
 If the researcher is collecting data from a literate sample, she can use any of the
data collection tools, but if she is collecting data from a sample which is not literate
she cannot use questionnaires unless a literate person guides the illiterate one
through the questionnaire
 If the researcher is collecting data from children aged between birth to 4 years she
can use observation schedules. It is not possible to use either questionnaires or
interview schedules because at this age, children are not able to read or write or
express themselves properly
 If the researcher is collecting data from children aged 5 – 8 years she can use either
the observation schedules or verbal interviews. She can use verbal interviews for
this age group because they can express themselves fairly well. She cannot use
questionnaires because they cannot read and write properly

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  If the researcher is collecting data from school going children aged above 9 years
she can use all tools including questionnaires because by this age they can read and
write and also express themselves quite well.
 If the researcher is collecting data from a sample of people who are either very
busy, very far away or are widely distributed in different locations, then the best
tool to use are the questionnaires
3. Type of data to be collected
 If the researcher wants to collect data on general opinions, views, impressions and
feelings of people, the best tool to use are questionnaires and interviews
 If the researcher wants to collect data with great details, she would have to use
either observation schedules, interview schedules or measurements
 If the researcher wants to collect quantitative data, the best tools to use are
questionnaires, observation schedules and measurements
 If the researcher is collecting data that is highly sensitive and which requires
complete anonymity, then the best tool to use is the questionnaire as one can hide
his or her identity.

Types of data Collection tools:

1. Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a list of questions the respondent is expected to answer.
The respondent is the person who answers the questions in a questionnaire. The questions
in the questionnaire should all relate to the objectives and hypotheses of the study. The
questionnaires are presented to the respondents in a written form. They are either mailed
or delivered by hand to the respondents. The respondents respond to the questionnaires in
a written form and then either mail them back or wait for the researcher to come and collect
them
When to use questionnaires:
 When respondents are very many and are scattered in different locations.
 When researcher requires collecting a lot of data which does not involve details
 When the researcher wants to collect data from respondents who would want anonymity
kept

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  When the researcher is collecting data which is highly sensitive and confidential. In such a
case, the respondents prefer to fill questionnaires as no one is likely to know who said what
 When the researcher is carrying out a survey, the questionnaire is the best tool to use. She
is able to collect a lot of data within a short time.
Types of Questionnaires:
There are four types of questionnaires namely, the mail-survey, the group administered
questionnaires, household drop off questionnaires and web-based questionnaires.
 The mail-survey questionnaire is sent to the respondents through the mail. They respond
to the questionnaire in writing and mail it back.
 In the group administered questionnaire, a group of respondents are brought together,
each is handed his/her questionnaire to complete while in the presence of the researcher.
After completing the questionnaire, they hand them back to the researcher. This gives the
respondents opportunity to ask for clarification on questions they may not understand
 In the household drop-off questionnaires, the researcher moves from home to home
distributing questionnaires. She leaves the respondent to fill the questionnaires on their
own. They may either mail them back or the researcher may come round on an agreed day
to collect them.
 Web-based questionnaires. This is basically a web based or internet based survey
involving a questionnaire uploaded to a site, where the respondents will log into and
accomplish electronically.
Construction of a questionnaire: The following are the guidelines for constructing a good
questionnaire:
 Questions should be relevant to the problem. They should be clear, short and simple
 Start the questionnaire with a short introduction, stating the objectives of the study and how
data will be used.
 Put questions in a logical sequence. Start with easy and non-threatening questions
 Put more difficult questions and those that ask sensitive information close to the end of the
questionnaire
 Do not start a questionnaire with an open ended question
 Ask questions on one topic or issue at a time

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  Ensure there are enough questions to adequately cover all the objectives and hypothesis of
the study
 Avoid ambiguous questions
 Use familiar and appropriate language
 Avoid abbreviations, double negatives, etc.
 Avoid two elements to be collected through one question
 Pre-code the responses to facilitate data processing
 Avoid embarrassing and painful questions
 Avoid language that suggests a response
 Ask the same question to all respondents
 Provide other, or don’t know options where appropriate
 Provide the unit of measurement for continuous variables (years, months, kgs, etc)
 For open ended questions, provide sufficient space for the response
 Arrange questions in logical sequence
 Avoid lengthy questionnaires as most respondents may not complete them
 Group questions by topic, and place a few sentences of transition between topics
 Provide complete training for interviewers
 Pretest the questionnaire on 20-50 respondents in actual field situation
 Check all filled questionnaire at field level
 Include “thank you” after the last question
NB: Some of the software available for questionnaire design, response data entry, data
analysis, and web and e-mail surveys are Sum Quest or SQ Survey Software, Professional
Quest, and Perseus. The choice of data collection method depends on the facilities available,
the degree of accuracy required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study,
and other costs and resources associated with and available for data gathering.

2. Interview Schedules:
Interview schedules involve face to face contacts between the researcher and the
respondents. There are two types of interview schedules and these are the individual
interviews and focus group discussions.

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 The individual interviews involve the researcher interviewing one person at a time. The
focus group interviews involve the researcher interviewing a group of respondents
together.
When to use an interview schedule:
 When data to be collected requires a lot of details and depth
 When respondents are not literate
 When data to be collected involves people’s opinions, views and impressions
 When data to be collected requires respondents to describe their feelings and
emotions.
NB: Constructing interview schedule questions should follow same format as questionnaire
questions.
3. Observation schedules:
In the observation, the researcher has direct contact with the research site. He/she observes
what goes on and makes her own judgements and conclusions. This method is also
called participant observation. It is used when the researcher takes part in the activities
of the people being observed. The researcher observes and records the information he/she
requires for the study.
The major difference between observation schedules and questionnaires and interview
schedules is that in the observation schedules, the researcher has direct contact with the
research site. He/she corrects data by observing what happens there while in the
questionnaires and interview schedules, the researcher does not always have direct contact
with the research site.
When to use observation schedules:
 When doing research on young children. They cannot be interviewed because they
are not able to express themselves well
 It is the best method for research related to the study of practical skills and teaching
methods. Through observation, one is able to establish whether a respondent has
mastered certain skills or whether he can teach well.

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Data Collection Techniques
1. Qualitative data Collection techniques:
Qualitative approaches to data collection usually involve direct interaction with individuals on a
one to one basis or in a group setting. The benefits of using these approaches include richness of
data and deeper insight into the phenomena under study.
Interviews:
Personal Interview
An interview is a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in the form
of verbal responses from one or more respondents. It is a conversation in which the roles of
the interviewer and the respondent change continually. Qualitative interviews are semi structured
or unstructured. If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the
phenomena under investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or depth. Semi structured
interviews tend to work well when the interviewer has already identified a number of aspects he
wants to be sure of addressing. The interviewer can decide in advance what areas to cover but is
open and receptive to unexpected information from the interviewee. This can be particularly
important if a limited time is available for each interview and the interviewer wants to be sure that
the "key issues" will be covered
Conducting an interview:
Conducting an interview involves four steps:
 Establishing a rapport
 Presenting/asking questions
 Recording the responses
 Ending the interview
Establishing a rapport:
Establishing a rapport means developing a friendly and cordial relationship with the respondent/s.
This makes the respondent/s feel free and comfortable with the interviewer. The following are
some strategies of establishing a rapport:
 Start by thanking the respondent/s for accepting to be interviewed

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  Ensure the place of the interview is comfortable, well lit, clean, neat, free from noise and
other interruptions.
 Ensure there are adequate seats for all the expected respondents
 Make sure you keep personal space between you and the respondents
 Ensure you are decently dressed
 If the respondents find you in the room, stand up, smile and shake hands (if the tradition
allows) and great him/them
 Invite the respondent/s to sit down
 Interview the respondents in the language they are comfortable with
 Before starting the interview, ensure you follow the protocol of the community for example
starting by prayer in kenya. Request one of the respondents to pray
 Explain briefly and clearly the objectives of the interview. Explain also to him/them how
the data collected will help him/.them
 Assure the respondents of confidentiality of the data obtained from him/them
 Thank the respondents at the end of the interview.

Presenting or asking questions:

 Study the questions by heart before starting the interview so that you are able to ask them
systematically and with confidence
 Have another person record information. This ensures that the interviewing period is short
and all responses are recorded
 Probe or ask for clarifications where necessary
 Do not finish sentences for respondents
 Encourage the respondents to say more by statements like, ok, mm, I see.
 Silent probe. When asking questions ask the question and wait for the respondent to talk.
Just keep quiet and listen. This encourages him to talk more
 Avoid making comments which may influence the responses of the respondents
Recording responses:
Recording can be through:
 Making mental notes of the responses

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  Making written record of the responses
 Taping or video taping

Advantages of personal interviews

 Allows the interviewer to clarify questions.
 Can be used with young children and illiterates.
 Allow the informants to respond in any manner they see fit.
 Allows the interviewers to observe verbal and non-verbal behavior of the
respondents.
 Means of obtaining personal information, attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs.
 Reduces anxiety so that potentially threatening topics can be studied.
 A good interviewer can stimulate and maintain the respondents interest
the frank answering of questions.
 If anxiety is aroused (e.g., why am I being asked these questions?), the interviewer
can allay it.
 An interviewer can repeat questions which are not understood, and give standardized
explanations where necessary.
 An interviewer can ask “follow-up” or “probing” questions to clarify a response.
 An interviewer can make observations during the interview; i.e.,, note is taken not only
of what the subject says but also how he says it.

Disadvantages:
 Unstructured interviews often yield data too difficult to summarize or evaluate.
 Training interviewers, sending them to meet and interview their informants, and
evaluating their effectiveness all add to the cost of the study.

NB: In general, apart from their expense, interviews are preferable to self-administered
questionnaires provided that they are conducted by skilled interviewers. While interviewing, a
precaution should be taken not to influence the responses; the interviewer should ask his questions
in a neutral manner. He should not show agreement, disagreement, or surprise, and should record
the respondent’s precise answers without shifting or interpreting them.
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 2. Questionnaires:
Self-administered questionnaire: the respondent reads the questions and fills in the answers by
himself (sometimes in the presence of an interviewer who “stands by” to give assistance if
necessary. The use of self-administered questionnaires is simpler and cheaper, such questionnaires
can be administered to many persons simultaneously.
Example:
• to students of a school
• they can also be sent by post unlike interviews.
However, they demand a certain level of education on the part of the respondent.
Questionnaire Design
Questions may take two general forms: they may be “Open ended” (unstructured or data-blank)
questions, which the subject answers in his own words, or “closed” (structured or checklist)
questions, which are answered by choosing from a number of fixed alternative responses

The unstructured or data-blank questions:

These are questions that expect the respondent to give his own answers, for example “what do you
think are the main causes of strikes by bank employees?” When a researcher asks such questions,
he needs to provide adequate space for the respondents to write their anwers.
When do we use unstructured or data-blank questions?
 When the researcher cannot anticipate the possible responses the respondents may give
 When the researcher is dealing with a very new area of study which has little or no previous
information available
 When the possible responses or alternatives to be given are too many
 When the data collected does not have to be analyzed by a computer program
Structured or the checklist questions:
These are questions which provide the respondents with alternative responses
When to use structured or checklist questions:
 When a lot of information is available on the area being investigated. This makes it easier
to develop the alternative responses

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  When data has to be analyzed through the computer
 When the problem being investigated requires quick data to solve a serious problem. In
such a case, the data has to be collected within a short time, analyzed quickly and report
written.
3. Observations:
Not all qualitative data collection approaches require direct interaction with people. It is a
technique that can be used when data collected through other means can be of limited value or is
difficult to validate. For example, in interviews participants may be asked about how they behave
in certain situations but there is no guarantee that they actually do what they say they do. Observing
them in those situations is more reliable: it is possible to see how they actually behave. Observation
can also serve as a technique for verifying or nullifying information provided in face to face
encounters. In some research observation of people is not required but observation of the
environment. This can provide valuable background information about the environment where a
research project is being undertaken.
Observation qualifies as scientific inquiry when it is conducted specifically to answer a research
question, is systematically planned and executed, uses proper controls, and provides a reliable and
valid account of what happened.
Evaluation of the observation Method:
Observation is the only method available to gather certain types of information. VIZ:
 The study of records,
 mechanical processes, and
 young children, as well as other inarticulate participants, falls into this category. Another
value of observation is that we can collect the original data at the time they occur. We need
not depend on reports by others.
Advantages of observation:
A researcher is able to:
 Collect data directly from the research site
 Observe for himself what goes on in the field
 Make his own conclusions and judgements about the data he collects
 Collect other data in the process of the observation
 Ask questions on what he observes in order to get clarification

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  we can secure information that most participants would ignore either because it is so
common and expected or because it is not seen as relevant.
 Another advantage of observation is that it alone can capture the whole event as it occurs
in its natural environment
 Finally, participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they respond to
questioning. Observation is less demanding of them and normally has a less biasing effect
on their behavior than does questioning. In addition, it is also possible to conduct disguised
and unobtrusive observation studies much more easily than disguised questioning
Disadvantages
 It is time consuming
 More expensive because the researcher has to travel to the research site
 Very tiring method
 Possible for the researcher to make wrong judgements if he does not ask questions
 The observer normally must be at the scene of the event when it takes place, yet it is often
impossible to predict where and when the event will occur.
 observation is limited as a way to learn about the past. It is similarly limited as a method
by which to learn what is going on in the present at some distant place. It is also difficult
to gather information on such topics as intentions, attitudes, opinions, or preferences
How to plan observations:
 Ensure that the purpose and the objectives of the study are clear
 Identify what you want to observe to cover objectives of the study
 Compile a list of indicators or attributes you want to observe
 Decide how you will record your observations. It may be tallying. You put a tally whenever
you observe the characteristic or attributes you are observing. It may also be by describing
what is observed
 Make administrative arrangements before going to the observation. This involves infoming
the sample in the research site when you will go for the observation.

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 4. Focus group discussion
Sometimes it is preferable to collect information from groups of people rather than from a series
of individuals. Focus groups can be useful to obtain certain types of information or when
circumstances would make it difficult to collect information using other methods to data collection
I. Characteristics and uses of focus group discussions
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a group discussion of 6-12 persons guided by a facilitator,
during which group members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain topic. The purpose of
an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group. It aims
to be more than a question-answer interaction.

FGD techniques can be used to:

a) Develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring in greater depth the problem
to be investigated and its possible causes.
b) Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger scale surveys.
c) Supplement information on community knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and
behaviour already available but incomplete or unclear.

II. Conducting a focus group discussion

Recruitment of participants: Participants should be roughly of the same socioeconomic group or
have a similar background in relation to the issue under consideration. The age and sex
composition of the group should facilitate free discussion. If we need to obtain information on a
topic from several different categories of informants who are likely to discuss the issue from
different perspectives, we should organize a focus group for each category. For example, a group
for men and a group for women.

Physical arrangements: Communication and interaction during the FGD should be

encouraged in every possible way. Arrange the chairs in a circle. Make sure the area will be
quiet, adequately lighted, etc., and that there will be no disturbances.
Preparation of a discussion guide: There should be a written list of topics to be covered.
It can be formulated as a series of open-ended questions.

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During the discussion: One of the members of the research team should act as a "facilitator" for
the focus group. One should serve as "recorder

Functions of the facilitator in a Focus Group Discussion:

• Introduce the session
• Encourage discussion
• Encourage involvement
• Listen carefully and move the discussion from topic to topic. Subtly control the time
allocated to various topics so as to maintain interest.
• Take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and thank the
participants. In general, the facilitator should not act as an expert on the topic. His or her being
there is to stimulate and support discussion.

Report writing in focus group discussions: Start with a description of the selection and
composition of the groups of participants and a commentary on the group process, so the reader
can assess the validity of the reported findings. Present your findings, following your list of topics
and guided by the objective(s) of your FGD. Include questions whenever possible, particularly for
key statements.
Focus groups are especially valuable
in the following scenarios:
• Obtaining general background about a topic or issue.
• Generating research questions to be explored via quantitative methodologies.
• Interpreting previously obtained quantitative results.
• Stimulating new ideas for products and programs.
• Highlighting areas of opportunity for specific managers to pursue.
• Diagnosing problems that managers need to address.
• Generating impressions and perceptions of brands and product ideas.
• Generating a level of understanding about influences in the participant’s world

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Assignment:
Design a questionnaire that you could use to assess the quality of your on-campus dining
facilities. Make sure you can test the following hypotheses:

H1: There is a positive relationship between the service quality of the on-campus dining facilities
and customer loyalty.

H2: The relationship between service quality and customer loyalty is mediated by customer
satisfaction.

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