POWER SYSTEM – I

LAB MANUAL
(CODE : EE 592)

JIS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(An Autonomous Institution)
Electrical Engineering Department
Kalyani, Nadia
POWER SYSTEM – I
Paper Code : EE 592
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Draw the Schematic diagram of structure of power system and power
transmission line and Symbol of Electrical Equipments.

2. Simulation of DC distribution by network analyzer.

3. Measurement of earth resistance by earth tester.
4. Dielectric strength test of insulating oil, solid Insulating Material.
5. Different parameter calculation by power circle diagram
6. Study of different types of insulator.
7. Determination of the generalized constants A.B, C, D of long
transmission line.
8. Active and reactive power control of alternator.
9. Study and analysis of an electrical transmission line circuit with the
help of software.
10. Dielectric constant, tan delta, resistivity test of transformer oil.
11. Any Innovative experiment according to knowledge of power System.
12. R , L ,C CIRCUIT AND PF IMPROVEMENT
 Experiment No: 01
Title:- Draw the Schematic diagram of structure of power system and
power transmission line and Symbol of Electrical Equipments.

Experiment No- 02

Title:- Simulation of DC distribution by network analyzer.

INTRODUCTION :-

The transmission lines which transmit the electrical energy from the generating station to
different distributing substations are called feeders. The feeders may also be underground in
which case they are called as cables. These feeders terminate into distributors and the
customers are reconnected by means of service mains to distributors. Generally the
substations are connected and mostly two systems of DC distribution i.e. 2 wire or 3 wire
are adopted.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTORS :-

The most general method of classifying Dc distributors is the way they are fed the feeders.
On the basis, DC distributors are classified as –

i. Distributors fed at one end

ii. Distributors fed at both ends.
iii. Ring Distributor.

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END

In this type of feeding the distributor is connected to the supply at one end and load are
taken at different points along the length of the distributor.

Figure below shows the Single Line Diagram of a DC distributor.

The following points are worth noting in a single fed distribution –

i. The current in the various section of the distributor away from feeding point goes
on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section CD
and current is section CD is more than the current in section DF.

ii. The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing. Thus
in Fig. the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
 iii. In case a fault occurs on any section of the feeder, whole distributor will have to be
disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity is interrupted.

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and
loads are tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor. The voltages at
both the feeding points may or may not be equal. Fig. shows a distributor AB is fed at the
ends A & B and the loads of I1, I2, I3 tapped off at points C, D and E respectively. Here the
load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say A, reaches
minimum value and then again starts raising and reaches maximum value when we reach
the other feeding point B, the minimum voltage occurs at some point and is never fixed. It is
shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the distributor.

Advantages:

i. If a fault occurs on any section or feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of
supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
ii. The area of X-section for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a singly
fed distributor.

RING MAIN DISTRIBUTOR

In this type, the distributor is in the form of a closed ring. It is equivalent to a straight
distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages, the two ends being brought together to from
a closed ring. The Distributor Ring may be fed at one or more than one point.

The Ring main Distributors are two types

a) Single Ring Distributors

b) Double Ring Distributors
SINGLE END RING DISTRIBUTORS
A single ring distributor is that in which the two ends are connected tighter as shown in the
diagram, The distributor is fed from point A, and is loaded at point B, C, D & E. In order to
know the current distribution and the voltage at different tapping points, the distributor can
be assumed to be cut into two sections at point A and spread out. Now this distributor can
be created in a same manner as that of a feeder fed at two ends.

RADIAL SYSTEM WITH ONE END SUPPLY

SAMPLE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH ITS CALCULATIONS :-

Simplifying the circuit using network theorem we get equivalent resistance of the entire network(R).

R = 8.96 ohms

Therefore A0 = Vdc / R = 20 / 8.96 = 2.23 A

V1 =Vdc – ( A0 * 1 ohm) = 17.77 V (Vdc is the supply voltage)

A1 = 17.77 / 100 = 0.17 A

Remaining current = (A0 – A1) = 2.06 A = Ar

V2 = V1 – ( Ar * 2 ohm) = 13.64 V

Similarly the rest part can be solved.

RADIAL SYSTEM WITH BOTH END SUPPLY

SAMPLE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH ITS CALCULATIONS :-

Here we apply Super position theorem ,

With one end source Vdc acting alone we get ,

Simplifying the circuit using network theorem we get equivalent resistance of the entire network(R).

R = 8.96 ohms

Therefore A0 = Vdc / R = 20 / 8.96 = 2.23 A

V1 =Vdc – ( A0 * 1 ohm) = 17.77 V (Vdc is the supply voltage)

A1 = 17.77 / 100 = 0.17 A

Remaining current = (A0 – A1) = 2.06 A = Ar

V2 = V1 – ( Ar * 2 ohm) = 13.64 V

Similarly the rest part can be solved.

With other end source Vdc” acting alone we get ,

Simplifying the circuit using network theorem we get equivalent resistance of the entire network(R).

R = 9.85 ohms

Therefore A0 “= Vdc” / R = 20 / 9.85 = 2.03 A

V3 =Vdc – ( A0” * 5 ohm) = 9.85 V (Vdc is the supply voltage)

A3 = 9.85 / 200 = 0.049 A

Remaining current = (A0” – A3) = 1.98 A = Ar

V2 = V3 – ( Ar * 2 ohm) = 5.85 V

Similarly the rest part can be solved.

Hence the total current and the voltage will be the summation of the values obtained with each of the
sources acting independently.
User can make any such type of circuits but the calculation procedure will remain the same.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH ITS CALCULATIONS:-

Apply network analysis and delta – star conversion in order to calculate the equivalent resistance of the
whole network. The rest of the calculations will be similar to that of the radial system.
 Experiment No-03

Title: Measurement of earth resistance by earth tester.

Objective: To measure Earth resistance with the help of Earth Tester.

Theory:

According to Indian Electricity Rule the earth means connected with general mass of the
earth in such a manner as to ensure at all turns immediate discharge of energy without
danger.

This connection should posses some resistance and this resistance should be low so that the
current through the earth is high. The earth resistance comprises of the following things.

(i) The resistance of the earth wire between the earth point on the appliances and
earth electrode.
(ii) The contact resistance between earth electrode and the soil immediately around the
electrode.
(iii) The resistance of the earth to flow of fault current.

The resistance of the wire in (i) can be easily measured. The contact resistance as in
(ii)is very low and may be neglected. So the measurement of earth resistance means
to measure the last one.

Factor Effecting Earth Resistance:

The main factors on which the resistance on any earthing systems depends are-

(i)Shape and material of earth electrode and earth wire.

(ii)Depth in the soil at which the electrode is grounded.
(iv)moisture and chemical composition of soil.
(v)Grouting of the earth electrode should be vertical and preferably the electrode
bottom be embedded in the pipe which should be made conductive by use of salt and
charcoal.
(vi)Specific resistance of soil surrounding and in the neighbourhood and electrode.
(vii)Maximum value of the earth resistance should be 1 ohm as per ISS.
(viii)Measurement of earth resistance by earth tester is the application of “The fall
of potential method”.The earth resistance is directly displayed by the indicating
instruement.
(ix)Two electrode method is adopted in this laboratory for calculating earth
resistance.
With Analog Earth Tester Meter

With Digital Earth Tester Meter

What is Earth Tester:- Most facilities have grounded electrical systems, so that in
the event of a lightning strike or utility overvoltage, current will find a safe path to
earth. A ground electrode provides the contact between the electrical system and the earth. To
ensure a reliable connection to earth, electrical codes, engineering standards, and local
standards often specify a minimum impedance for the ground electrode. The International
Electrical Testing Association specifies ground electrode testing every three years for a
system in good condition with average up-time requirements.Fluke earth ground testers
provide quick, accurate impedance measurements through several test methods: 3- and 4-pole
Fall-of-Potential testing, selective testing, stakeless testing and 2-pole testing. Detailed
application information can be found at the Earth Ground Solution Center.

Instrument & Equipment used:

SL No Name of the Apparatus Quantity Type Maker’s Name

Procedure:

(i) Grounding electrodes should be embedded in a straight line.

(ii) Connect the earth testing megger as per circuit diagram.
(iii) While taking readings drive the earth megger at full speed.
(iv) Megger terminals and live wires should not be touch during experiments to avoid
any accident.

Observation & Result:

Direction of No of Observation Measure value of

Measurement earth resistance
First direction 01
02
Second 1800 opposite 01
direction
02
Conclusion/Discussion:

Write your comments on the results obtained and discuss the discrepancy, if any.

Questions:

1) Why ground?
2) Why test grounding systems?
3) What is a ground and what does it do?
4) What is a good ground resistance value?
5) What are the Methods of Earth Ground Testing?
6) Why determine the soil resistivity?
 Experiment No-04(A)
Title:-Dielectric Strength test of Insulating oil.

Objective:

To test the dielectric strength of insulating oil, this is hygroscopic.

Theory:

The material separating two charged plates is called dielectric, which may be air, paper or
insulating oil and other kinds also the two essential properties of the dielectric, is it should
have sufficient insulation resistance a dielectric strength also. In practice the dielectric
sustain voltage stress and dielectric loss. The property of dielectric material that enables it to
withstand high voltage stress without deformation or failure is expressed in term of electric
strength, which will cause breakdown. It is expressed in terms of breakdown voltage per unit
thickness of dielectric (kilovolt/mm).

EBR=VBR / T

Where VBR=Breakdown Voltage.

EBR=Break down Stress.

T=Thickness of dielectric.

The breakdown stress of a dielectric is referred to as the electric strength of the material. The
Voltage across the electrode is gradually increased. The breakdown occurs at a particular test
voltage. There is wide variation of dielectric strength as it varies with the following factors.

(i)Structure homogeneity and quality of sample.

(ii)Shape of electrode.

(iii)Thickness of sample.

(iv)Waveform of test voltage & duration and magnitude of applied voltage.

(v)Moisture contain of specimen.

(vi)Heat capacity of electrode.

In our experiment kit:-

Gap between two electrode=4 mm.

Shape of the electrode is sphere, diameter=13.4 mm.

Thickness of dielectric=4mm.

Maximum supply voltage=50 KV.

Circuit Diagram:
Instrument & Equipment used:

SL No Name of the Quantity Type Maker’s Name

Apparatus
01
02
03
04
05

Procedure:

1)First pour the oil into bucket very slowly and wait for some time sufficient care should be
taken during pouring of the oil in the bucket so that there must not be any air bubble in the
oil.

2) Close the top transparent cover of the oil bucket and make sure that variac is at zero
position. There after put the supply input chord to 230 V supply mains.

3) Press the HT ON green push. Rotate the variac in clockwise direction to increase the
voltage .Rate of increase of applied voltage should be approximately 2KV/secs.

4) Increase the voltage until the sample under test fails to withstand. Six breakdowns are
generally made on same sample at about 12 to 20 min interval. First result may not be taken
into account and the average of the subsequence five is taken as the Breakdown voltage of the
given oil.

5) After breakdown circuit become off. Press the memory push without disturbing variac
regulator, voltmeter give the actual breakdown voltage.

6) An over voltage indication circuit is incorporated in the set. When the output voltage
crosses the max value that is (60 KV) an indication lamp marked”Over Voltage” will glow and
a BUZZER will provide audio indication. Even if the sample does not undergo breakdown,
output voltage should not be raised beyond the max value (that is 60 KV).

Observation & Result:

Specified dielectric Strength of given Specimen oil=

No of Breakdown Voltage in KV Duration of Applied

Observation Voltage
01
02
03
04
05

Measured average Breakdown Voltage of given specimen oil =

Conclusion/Discussion:

Write your comments on the results obtained and discuss the discrepancy, if any.

Questions:

i) Why oil dielectric goes low? What is its effect in transformer?

ii) What is transformer Insulating Oil, what is its purpose in transformer and describe
different types of transformer oil?
iii) What are the properties of transformer oil?

Experiment No-04 (B)

Title:-Dielectric Strength test of solid Insulator.
Objective:
To test of the dielectric strength of solid insulator.
Theory:
To ensure the desired performance of an electrical insulator, t hat is for avoiding
unwanted insulator failure, each insulator has to undergo numbers of insulator test.
Before going through testing of insulator we will try to understand different causes
of insulator failure. Because insulator testing ensures the quality of electrical insulator and
chances for failure of insulation depend upon the quality of insulator.
Causes of Insulator Failure
There are different causes due to which failure of insulation in electrical power system may
occur. Let's have a look on them one by one-
Cracking of Insulator
The porcelain insulator mainly consists of three different materials. The main porcelain
body,steel fitting arrangement and cement to fix the steel part with porcelain. Due to
changing climate conditions, these different materials in the insulator expand and contract in
different rate. These unequal expansion and contraction of porcelain, steel and cement are the
chief cause of cracking of insulator.
Defective Insulation Material
If the insulation material used for insulator is defective anywhere, the insulator may have a
high chance of being puncher from that place.
Porosity in the Insulation Materials
If the porcelain insulator is manufactured at low temperatures, it will make it porous, and
due to this reason it will absorb moisture from air thus its insulation will decrease and
leakage current will start to flow through the insulator which will lead to insulator failure.
Improper Glazing on Insulator Surface
If the surface of porcelain insulator is not properly glazed, moisture can stick over it. This
moisture along with deposited dust on the insulator surface, produces a conducting path. As a
result the flash over distance of the insulator is reduced. As the flash over distance is reduced,
the chance of failure of insulator due to flash over becomes more.
Flash Over Across Insulator
If flash over occurs, the insulator may be over heated which may ultimately results into
shuttering of it.
Mechanical Stresses on Insulator
If an insulator has any weak portion due to manufacturing defect, it may break from that
weak portion when mechanical stress is applied on it by its conductor. These are the main
causes of insulator failure. Now we will discuss the different insulator test procedures to
ensure minimum chance of failure of insulation.
Insulator Testing
According to the British Standard, the electrical insulator must undergo the following tests
1. Flashover tests of insulator
2. Performance tests
3. Routine tests
Let's have a discussion one by one-

Flashover Test
There are mainly three types of flashover test performed on an insulator and these are-
Power Frequency Dry Flashover Test of Insulator
1. First the insulator to be tested is mounted in the manner in which it would be used
practically.
2. Then terminals of variable power frequency voltage source are connected to the both
electrodes of the insulator.
3. Now the power frequency voltage is applied and gradually increased up to the specified
value. This specified value is below the minimum flashover voltage.
4. This voltage is maintained for one minute and observes that there should not be any flash-
over or puncher occurred.
The insulator must be capable of sustaining the specified minimum voltage for one minute
without flash over.
The material separating two charged plates is called dielectric, which may
be air, paper or insulating oil and other kinds also the two essential properties of the
dielectric, is it should have sufficient insulation resistance a dielectric strength also. In
practice the dielectric sustain voltage stress and dielectric loss. The property of dielectric
material that enables it to withstand high voltage stress without deformation or failure is
expressed in term of electric strength, which will cause breakdown. It is expressed in terms of
breakdown voltage per unit thickness of dielectric (kilovolt/mm).

EBR=VBR / T

Where VBR=Breakdown Voltage.

EBR=Break down Stress.

T=Thickness of dielectric.

The breakdown stress of a dielectric is referred to as the electric strength of the material. The
Voltage across the electrode is gradually increased. The breakdown occurs at a particular test
voltage. There is wide variation of dielectric strength as it varies with the following factors.
(i)Structure homogeneity and quality of sample.
(ii)Shape of electrode.
(iii)Thickness of sample.
(iv)Waveform of test voltage & duration and magnitude of applied voltage.
(v)Moisture contain of specimen.
(vi)Heat capacity of electrode.

In our experiment kit:-

Gap between two electrode=4 mm.
Shape of the electrode is sphere, diameter=13.4 mm.
Thickness of dielectric=4mm.
Maximum supply voltage=50 KV.

Circuit Diagram:
Instrument & Equipment used:

SL No Name of the Quantity Type Maker’s Name

Apparatus
01
02
03
04
05

Procedure:

1)First pour the oil into bucket very slowly and wait for some time sufficient care should be
taken during pouring of the oil in the bucket so that there must not be any air bubble in the
oil.

2) Close the top transparent cover of the oil bucket and make sure that variac is at zero
position. There after put the supply input chord to 230 V supply mains.

3) Press the HT ON green push. Rotate the variac in clockwise direction to increase the
voltage .Rate of increase of applied voltage should be approximately 2KV/secs.

4) Increase the voltage until the sample under test fails to withstand. Six breakdowns are
generally made on same sample at about 12 to 20 min interval. First result may not be taken
into account and the average of the subsequence five is taken as the Breakdown voltage of the
given oil.

5) After breakdown circuit become off. Press the memory push without disturbing variac
regulator, voltmeter give the actual breakdown voltage.

6) An over voltage indication circuit is incorporated in the set. When the output voltage
crosses the max value that is (60 KV) an indication lamp marked”Over Voltage” will glow and
a BUZZER will provide audio indication. Even if the sample does not undergo breakdown,
output voltage should not be raised beyond the max value (that is 60 KV).

Observation & Result:

Specified dielectric Strength of given Specimen solid insulator=

No of Breakdown Voltage in KV Duration of Applied

Observation Voltage
01
02
03
04
05

Measured average Breakdown Voltage of given specimen solid insulator =

Conclusion/Discussion:

Write your comments on the results obtained and discuss the discrepancy, if any.

Questions:

i) Why dielectric strength goes low in insulator? What is its effect?

ii) What are the different reasons to breakdown of dielectric strength of solid insulator?
iii) What are the materials used for making of solid insulator?
iv) Name some instrument where solid insulator used.
 Experiment No-05
Title:- DIFFERENT PARAMITER CALCULATION BY POWER CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Objective: To study the performance of a transmission line under the conditions of

the varying load and to determine the sending end voltage and torque angle of a
transmission line by graphical methods.

Theory:

Receiving end power circle diagram

Receiving end power can be expressed as

SR =VRIR

=VRIR∠𝜑R

= VRIR𝐶𝑜𝑠∠𝜑R + jVRIRSin 𝜑R

Here VR= Receiving end Voltage taken as reference phasor

IR∠ − 𝜑R = Receiving end current lagging behind VR by an angle 𝜑R

We know that, (if we consider transmission system as two port network)

VS= AVR+BIR -------------------------------①

IS= CVR+DIR --------------------------------②

Where

VS= Sending end Voltage

IS= Sending end Current

Complex constant A, B can be written as A∠𝛼 has magnitude slightly less than unity. The
argument α is small +ve angle.

B = B∠𝛽 (∠𝛽 is nearly equal to 90⁰ ; B has unit ohm.

Now multiplying equation ① by VR/B we gat

( VS VR/B ) ∠𝛿 − 𝛽 = (A VR2/B) ∠𝛼 − 𝛽 + VR IR ∠ − 𝜑R -----------------------------③

Here 𝛿 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, VS leads VR by torque angle 𝛿

By such mollification all the voltage phasors are converted into volt-amperes and are rotated
through an angle – 𝛽 .

From equation ③ we gat,

( VS VR/B ) ∠𝛽 − 𝛿 = (A VR2/B) ∠𝛽 - 𝛼 + VR IR ∠𝜑R

Or, VR IR ∠𝜑R=(A VR2/B) ∠𝛽 – 𝛼 - ( VS VR/B ) ∠𝛽 − 𝛿

i.e SR = ( VS VR/B ) ∠𝛽 − 𝛿 - (A VR2/B) ∠𝛽 – 𝛼 -----------------------------------④

From equation (1) we get receiving end voltage phasor diagram as below

From equation (4) we get receiving end power phasor diagram as below

Products VRIR gives the total volt ampere at the receiving end. The horizontal projection of
VRIR is VRIRcos𝜑R which is the real power where as the vertical position V RIRsin𝜑R is the volt
ampere reactive. If the sending end and receiving end voltages V S and VR are kept
constant the position of O1 does not change as the distance O1M (=A VR2/B) is a constant and
independent of IR. Also the operating point M from O1 that is VS VR/B is constant for fixed
values of VS and VR. With the variation of load IR and 𝜑R the position of the point M.Therefore
the distant O2M will change. But the point M will remain at a constant distance O1M from the
fixed point O1. Thus M will move along a circle of radius V S VR/B with the centre at O1. Since
the locus of the operating point M is a circle with the axis of reference as real power and
reactive volt – ampere at the receiving end, the diagram so obtain is called the receiving end
power circle diagram.

PROBLEM:

A 132KV three phase line has the following line constants:

A=0.9∠2.50 ; B=100∠70⁰ Ω; C=0.0006∠800 . Draw the receiving end power circle for a load of 40
MW at 0.8 p.f lagging at the receiving end and determine sending end voltage and reactive volt
ampere.

DISCUSSIONS:

Write your comments on the results obtained and discuss the discrepancy

QUESTIONS:

a. What is the use of circle diagram?

b. Draw the sending end power circle diagram.
 Experiment No-06

Title:-Study of different types of insulator.

Objective: To study of different types of insulator.

a)To identify the insulators.

b)To measure all required dimensions.

c)To measure insulation resistance of insulator

Theory:

In general the insulator should have

1) High resistance in order to avoid leakage current to earth.

2) High dielectric strength i.e. high relative permittivity.

3) Good mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load, ice load etc.

4 )High ratio of puncture, strength of flash over.

5) High temperature with stand capability.

Besides it should be non-porous & free from impurities and cracks.

A) OVER HEAD LINE INSULATORS

Transmission lines conductors are bare and do not have any insulated coating over it.
To maintain safety and necessary clearance between live conductors and metal
structure of the support, insulators are mounted. These insulators provide insulation of
high voltage wire with the metal structure and also provide support to the conductor.
Insulators are also used in providing support to bus bar conductors and other live high
voltage equipment terminals.

INSULATOR MATERIALS

The following three materials are widely used in the manufacture of insulator units.
(a) Porcelain.
(b) Glass
(c) Synthetic resin.

TYPES:

There are three different types of insulators.

i) Pin Type
ii) Suspension Type.
iii) StrainType.
PIN TYPE INSULATORS:-

It consist of a single or multiple shells (petticoats or rain sheds) adapted to be mounted on a

spindle to be fixed to the cross arm of the supporting stricture. Multiple shells are provided to
obtain sufficient length of leakage path. Design of shells is such that when the uppermost
shell is wet due to rain, the lower cells are dry and provide sufficient leakage resistance.
Horizontal distance between tip of lower most shell should be less as compare to vertical
distance between same tip and cross arm. Insulator and pin are to be mechanically strong,
normally upto 33KV.

Suspension type insulators:

Suspension type insulators are free to swing and the clearances required between the power
conductor and the supporting structure are more as compare to pin type insulators. The
length of the cross arm is more and they are also economical for voltage more than 33KV.
Each insulator is designed for 11 KV and for any operating voltage; a string of insulators can
be used. Mechanical stresses at the point of attachment are reduce. Also in case of failure of
one of the units in string, only that particular unit needs replacement, rather than hole
string.
Shackle Insulator or Strain Insulator:
Shackle Insulators are used in low voltage distribution lines. They are otherwise known as
spool insulators. Shackle Insulators are used at the end of distribution lines or at sharp turns
where there is excessive tensile load on the lines. These insulators can be mounted either in
the vertical or horizontal position. The Shackle Insulator is mounted axially. The loading is
on circumferential grooves in the insulator. The conductor is secured in the groves by means
of soft-bending wires. The insulators are bolted to the cross-arm of the pole.

STOCK-BRIDGE DAMPER
A damper is a device specially designed to absorbed the vibration energy, and therefore
prevent the occurrence of any vibration at all. The STOCK-BRIDGE DAMPER is extremely
simple, nevertheless effective device for suppressing high frequency vibrations. It consist of
two hollow weights of special shape fixed at higher end of a length of a flexible still cable
which is itself fastened to the conductor at its midpoint by means of an aluminium clamp. The
weights are of galvanised iron or in the smaller sizes of zinc and the flexible cable are
protected by enclosing it in a watertight flexible aluminium tube. An efficient grip is obtained
by the use of only one bolt. Two dampers are required for each point of suspension of the
conductor at appropriate distances, depending of the conductor size.

The damping actions of the STOCK-BRIDGE device are due to the dissipation of the
vibrational energy of the conductor by hysteresis and inter strand friction in the flexible
damper cable. Vibration in the main cable cause relative motion between the control clamps
and the weight of the damper, resulting in the bending of the flexible cable through a
magnified arc and a consequent absorption of energy. The damping effect is automatic, the
first tremor of vibration in the conductor being damped out before the amplitude is able to
build up to a measurable magnitude.

B) INSULATION IN CABLE
Commonly used cable insulations are
i) PVC (Poly vinyl chloride)
ii) Paper Insulation
 iii) Cross linked polythene cable (XLPE)
iv) Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR)

INSULATED CABLES

All electrical cables consist of three essential parts

a) Conductor for transmitting electrical power

b) The insulation, an electric insulating medium, needed to insulate the conductor from
direct contact with earth or other object.
c) External protection against mechanical damage, chemichal or electro chemical attack,
fire or any other dangerous effects external to the cable.

Copper conductors have extensively used for cable but of late Aluminium is being used to
considerable extent. To obtain flexibility a number of wires are made up into a standard,
which makes it easier to handle, less liable to kink and break.

Instrument & Equipment used:

SL No Name of the Quantity Type Maker’s Name

Apparatus
01
02
03

PROCEDURE

1) Identify the insulator and measure the all required dimensions.

2) Draw the figure with proper scaling mark different part
3) Cleane the surface of the Insulator.
4) Measure insulation resistance of insulator.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

DISCUSSIONS:

Write your comments on the results obtain and discuss the discrepancy.

QUESTIONS:

a) What is string efficiency? How string efficiency can be improved?

b) Derive the expression for insulation resistance of cable insulator ?
 Experiment No-07

Title:- ABCD Parameters of Transmission Line

What are ABCD Parameters?

ABCD parameters (also known as chain or transmission line parameters) are
generalized circuit constants used to help model transmission lines. More specifically,
ABCD parameters are used in the two port network representation of a transmission
line. The circuit of such a two-port network is shown below:

A major section of power system engineering deals in the transmission of electrical

powerfrom one place (eg. generating station) to another (e.g. substations or residential
homes) with maximum efficiency. So it’s important for power system engineers to be
thorough with the mathematical modeling of how this power is transmitted. ABCD
parameters and a two-port model is used to simplify these complex calculations.
To maintain the accuracy of this mathematial model, transmission lines are classified
into three types: short transmission lines, medium transmission lines, and long
transmission lines. The formula for these ABCD parameters will change depending on
the length of the transmission line. This is necessary since certain electrical
phenomenon – such as corona discharge and the Ferranti effect – only come into play
when dealing with long transmission lines.
As the name suggests, a two port network consists of an input port PQ and an output
port RS. In any 4 terminal network, (i.e. linear, passive, bilateral network) the input
voltage and input current can be expressed in terms of output voltage and output
current. Each port has 2 terminals to connect itself to the external circuit. Thus it is
essentially a 2 port or a 4 terminal circuit, having:
Given to the input port PQ.

Given to the output port RS.

Now the ABCD parameters of transmission line provide the link between the supply
and receiving end voltages and currents, considering the circuit elements to be linear in
nature.

Thus the relation between the sending and receiving end specifications are given using
ABCD parameters by the equations below.

Now in order to determine the ABCD parameters of transmission line let us impose the
required circuit conditions in different cases.

ABCD Parameters, When Receiving End is Open Circuited

The receiving end is open circuited meaning receiving end current IR = 0.

Applying this condition to equation (1) we get,

Thus it’s implied that on applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get
parameter A as the ratio of sending end voltage to the open circuit receiving end
voltage. Since dimension wise A is a ratio of voltage to voltage, A is a dimension less
parameter.
Applying the same open circuit condition i.e I R = 0 to equation (2)
Thus it’s implied that on applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters of
transmission line, we get parameter C as the ratio of sending end current to the open
circuit receiving end voltage. Since dimension wise C is a ratio of current to voltage, its
unit is mho.
Thus C is the open circuit conductance and is given by
C = IS ⁄ VR mho.
ABCD Parameters, When Receiving End is Short Circuited

Receiving end is short circuited meaning receiving end voltage V R = 0

Applying this condition to equation (1) we get,

Thus it’s implied that on

applying short circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter B as the ratio
of sending end voltage to the short circuit receiving end current. Since dimension wise
B is a ratio of voltage to current, its unit is Ω. Thus B is the short circuit resistance and is
given by
B = VS ⁄ IR Ω.
Applying the same short circuit condition i.e V R = 0 to equation (2) we get

Thus it’s implied that on

applying short circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter D as the ratio
of sending end current to the short circuit receiving end current. Since dimension wise
D is a ratio of current to current, it’s a dimensionless parameter.
 Experiment No 8

Title:- Active and reactive power control of alternator.

 Experiment No 8

R , L ,C CIRCUIT AND PF IMPROVEMENT

INTRODUCTION :-

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store electrical
energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming
polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The
nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores
energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

THEORY:

Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits
capacitance. A common form of energy storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor. In a parallel plate capacitor,
capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely proportional to the
separation distance between the plates. If the charges on the plates are +q and −q respectively, and V gives the
voltage between the plates, then the capacitance C is given by

which gives the voltage/current relationship

CIRCUIT DIAGARM:

the total voltage should be equal to the sum of voltages on the resistor and capacitor, so we have:
v(t)=vR(t)+vC(t)=i(t)R+i(t)1jωC=i(t)(R+1/jωC),

where ω is the angular frequency of the AC voltage source and j is the imaginary unit; j2=-1. Since the complex
number Z=R+1/jωC=SQRT .(R2+(1/ωC)2) ejϕ has a phase angle ϕ that satisfies cosϕ=R/SQRT (R2+(1/ωC)2 ),

SL NO VOLTAGE CURRENT MEASURED CAPACITANCE P.F

THEORY :-

Series RL Circuit Analysis

In series RL circuit , the values of frequency f, voltage V, resistance R and Inductance L are known and there is no
instrument for directly measuring the value of inductive reactance and impedance; so, for complete analysis of
series RL circuit , follow these simple steps:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-

PROCEDURE AND CALCULATIONS:-

Step 1.Since the value of frequency and inductor are known, so firstly calculate the value of inductive reactance XL:
XL = 2πfL ohms.

Step 2. From the value of XL and R, calculate the total impedance of the circuit which is given by

Step 3. Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit θ = tan - 1(XL/ R).

Step 4. Use Ohm’s Law and find the value of the total current: I = V / Z amp.

Step 5. Calculate the voltages across resistor R and inductor L by using Ohm’s Law . Since the resistor and the
inductor are connected in series, so current in them remains the same.
TABLE :-

SL NO CURRENT IMPEDANCE P.F PF

PRECAUTIONS :-

Carefully connect the terminals for different measuring instruments