(A) MOMENT OF A FORCE AND EQUILIB RIUM

1.1 TRANSL ATIONA L AND ROTATIO NAL example in Fig. 1.1, on pushing a ball lying on a
MOTION S floor, it begins to move in the direction of push.
A rigid body when acted upon by a force, can
(2) Rotational motion
have two kinds of motion :
Now consider a body pivoted at a point i.e.
(1) linear or translational motion, and
not free to move and a force is applied on the
(2) rotational motion. body at a suitable point, it rotates the body about
(1) Linear or translati onal motion the axis passing through the pivoted point. This
is the turning effect of the force and the motion
When a force acts on a stationary rigid body
of the body is called rotationa l motion. For
which is free to move, the body starts moving in
example, if a wheel is pivoted at its centre and
a straight path in the direction of the applied force.
a force is applied tangentially on its rim as shown
This is called llnear or translational motion. For
Ball
in Fig. 1.2, the wheel
rotates about an axis ~l
Whoe
Push through its centre. Pivot \ \
F- -~ •
Direction of Similarly when a force
--,p• motion
is applied normally on F

Fig. 1.1 Translational motion the handle of a door, Fig. 1.2 Rotational motion

1
 the door ht~p,ins lo rotate about :in iudH pw,1;i11p, Mouw11 t i,f fi,rtc ab,,ut 1Ji,t i.i1.lHpam,ing tfirot,,1h tf
f)IIIII{ 0 I(! J

throup,h the hihp,cs 011 wlikh the door rn1,l11.

n Jli,rcc x J>crpe11dlcular di1;tar,c,;c
1.2 MOMENT (TURNING EFFECT) OF A of f«,rcc f'mm p,>int ()
FORCE OR TORQUE ~ J,' X (JI' (J
"·• , l )
, . . - - - - - - - - - - --.:.:_
Consider u h11dy whid1 i" Nole : F11r prorludnP,
• '
m11.ximum turnin..?,, en~,,. r.
.!,Ji, , 1 112 (./,
pivoted at point 0, Wh,·n a
forl:c F is uppli,·d h111 imnlally )
hotly hy a P,~Vt'fl ,!orr·,,: tl11r ,(rm:e lv applu1d on the
1

/,mfy ot a flOtnt ,!11r whu:h th1! papendir:uv.1r di.ru.1//J·e

on the hotly wirh its line of of thl' /i,u1 of {l(;t/.on rf th1! .forr:e fmm the axt·., · ,t
mt11tlon I.v m11wnum.' · the ''iv
In t h't,Y .'Iituatton, ., '1·
u~tion in the llin·l·tinn Al' us . Ii' . r, en
.fom' flfrlV ,,,.v t1111 m,.wmum torque to turn the br,dy.
shown in Fip,. IJ, the foru~ iN Hx. /.J Mm111•11t
unahtc to produn• linear 11J'a/im·, l/n/1,v fl/ mfJment of.force
motion nf the hody in it,i Unit of moment of force
Jircction hernusc the hody is not fn.·c In move,
= unit of force x unit of distance
but tJ1is for\:c turns (or rotates) the hody ahout the
V('nical axis passing through the point 0, in the The S.I, unit of force is newton and that of
dirl~Ctinn shown hy the arrow in Fig. 1.3 (i.r., the distance is metre, so the S.J. unit of moment
fon:c: rut~lfc.:s the hndy anticlockwise). of force is newton x metre. This is abbreviated
as Nm.*
factors affrcti11g the turning of a b,,dy
The C.G.S. unit of moment of force is
The turning effect of a force on a hody dyne x cm.
dcpc.nds on the folJowing twn factors :
But if force is measured in gravitational unit
. (1) the nw1,:nitude of the force applit1d, and then the unit of moment of force in S.I. system'
• (2) the perpendicular di.,·tance of the line of is kgf x m and in C.G.S. system, the unit is
action of the f orc:e from the axi.r of rotation gf x cm.
(or pivoted point). These units arc related as follows :
Indeed, the turning efft.et on the body depends 2
1 N m = 10~ dyne x 10 cm }
on the product of both the above stated factors. = 107 dyne cm
This product is called the moment offorce (or ...(1.2)
1 kgf x m = 9·8 Nm
torque). 1bus, the body rotates due to the moment and 1 gf x cm= 980 dyne cm
of force (or torque) about the pivoted point. In
odlel' words, Clockwise and anticlockwise moments :
Conventionally, if the effect on the body is to tum
!,, ,.
11, •
ct on the body about "fl it anticlockwise, the moment of force is called
l~d': I
ment of force (or t~
j I
anticlockwise moment and it is taken positive,
I
•.. $.,_
t I I
while if the effect on the body is to turn it
clockwise, the moment of force is called
e (or to c:lockwise moment and it is taken negative.
The moment of force is a vector quantity. The
direction of anticlockwise moment is along the
axis of rotation outwards i.e. towards the observer,
In Pig. 1.3, die line of acdon of force F is while thut of clockwise moment is along the axis
shown b 'WIV-4~ line AP and the of rotation inward:; i.e. away from the observer.
· pivoted point O on • 111c unit N m uf moment of force (or h1r4uc) is not wrillen joule (J).
lluwevr.r, the unit Nm for work or energy is written joule (J) hccausc
OP. Therefore, 111n111c iH u vector, whilll work or cm:rgy is u scalar quanlity.

2
 On applying a force on a piv
oted body, its A
direction of rotation depends FRAME
no t only on the (fixed In wall)
direction of force bu t als o
on the po int of
application of the force. Thus
the direction of : HINGE
rotation of a body can be change
d by two ways : 1... .1.- ---, lc
(1) By changing the point
of application of
force - Fig. l.4(a) shows the D
anticlockwise Fig. J.5 Opening of a door
and clockwise moments produ
ced in a disc (2) The upper mo
pivoted at its centre by chang vable circular stone of a ha nd
ing the point flour grinder is provided with
of application of the force F fro a ha nd le ne ar
m point A to

~ffit:e-P\VOT~
its rim (i.e ., at the maximum
distance from
the centre) so that it can eas
ily be rot ate d
about the iron pivot at its cen
tre by applying
a smaller force at the handle.
A A (3) Fo r tur nin g a ste eri ng
ANTICLOCKWISE wh ee l, a for ce is
(POSITIVE)
CLOCKWISE app lie d tan gen tia lly on the rim of the wh eel
(NEGATIVE)
(a) By changing the point of app
lication of force (Fig. 1.6). Th e sense of rotati
on of the wh eel
.......... ..., ca n be ch an ge d eit he r by
(.A XL ,0! (,......~ dir ect ion of for ce
rev ers ing the
t V ' :\ or by changing the po int
\ ......................../ \ AX LE- " of application of force witho
··...................•· ut changing the
ANTICLOCKWISE
CLOCKWISE
dir ect ion of for ce . In Fig . 1.6 (a) , wh en
(POSITIVE) (NEGATIVE) force F is applied . at po int A
(b) By changing the direction of
force
of the wheel,
Fig. 1.4 Anticlockwise and clockwi the wh eel rot ate s anticlockwise~ wh ile in
se moments
Fig . 1.6 (b), the wh ee l rot
(2) By ch an gin g the dir ec ate s clo ck wi se
tio n of for ce when the same force F is app
Fig. l .4(b) sho ws the an tic lied in the same
loc kw ise an d dir ect ion at po
clockwise moments produced int B of the wheel.
on a pivoted
axle by changing the direction
the free end of the axle.
Common examples of moment
of force
(1) To open or shut a door, we
of force F at
F@) Ftf)J
apply a force (push (a) ANTICLOCKWISE (b) CLOCKWISE
or pull) F normal to the door ROTATION ROTATION
at its handle P Fig. 1.6 Sense of rotation change
which is provided at the maxim d by the change
um distance of point of application offorce
from the hinges as shown in Fig
. 1.5. (4) In a bic yc le, to tur
You must have experienced tha n the rea r wheel
t on applying ant iclo ckw ise
the force at a point Q (near the hin , a small force is applied on the
ge R), much foo t ped al of the
greater force is required to open front toothed wheel of size
the door and big ge r tha n
if the force is applied at the hinge the rea r wh eel so that the
R, you are pe rpe nd icu lar dis
not able to open the door hows tan ce of the point of
oever large the app licatio n of for
force is applied (because for the ce from the axle of the wheel
torque is zero). Thus, it is for thi
force at R, lF
s reason that • • • FOOT
the handle P is provided near the PEDAL
free end of
the door so that a smaller for
ce being at a
larger perpendicular distance fro
m the hinges
produces the maximum mome
nt of force that
is required to open or shut the Fig. 1.7 Turning of toothed whe
door. el ofa bicycle
3
 is large (Fig. 1.7). The front toothed wheel is parallel forces, not acting along the same line, Jonn
joined to the rear wheel by a chain passing a couple. A couple is always needed to produce a
over their teeth. The chain pulls and drives rotation. For example, when we open a door, the
the rear wheel when the pedal is pushed down. rotation of the door is produced by a couple
(S) A spanner, used to tighten or loosen a nut, consisting of two forces : (i) the force which we
has a long handle to produce a large moment exert at the handle of the door, and (ii) an equa1
of force by a small force applied normally at and opposite force of reaction at the hinge.
the end of its handle as shown in Fig. 1.8. Sometimes when we require a larger tuming
The spanner is turned anticlockwise to loosen effect, then two forces, equal in magnitude and
the nut by applying the force in the direction opposite in direction, are applied on the body
shown in Fig. 1.8, while it is turned clockwise explicitly such that both the forces tum the body
to tighten the nut by applying the force in a in the same direction.
direction opposite to that shown in Fig. 1.8. Example : To open the nut of a car wheel
HANDLE
we apply equal forces, each F, at the two end~
• of a wrench's arm in opposite directions as shown
FORCE
in Fig. 1.9.
Fig. 1.8 Spanner (wrench) used to loosen a nut
(6) A jack screw used to lift a heavy load such F ~
as a vehicle, has a long arm so that less effort
is needed to rotate it so as to raise or lower HOLDING
A NUT
····--' F
\ f~00 0 00]
L----' g=--- -.J_
~ iF
the load table. (a) Car wrench (b) Wrench
Conclusion :_From the above examples, we Fig. I.9 Opening the nut of a car wheel by a wrench
conclude that the turning of a body about an axis Similarly, while turning a water tap (Fig. 1.10),
depends not only on the magnitude of force, but tightening the cap of an inkpot (Fig. 1. 11 ), turning
it also depends on the perpendicular distance of the key in the hole of a lock (Fig. 1.12), winding
the line of action of the applied force from the
a clock (or a watch) with a key, turning the
axis of rotation. Larger the perpendicular distance, steering wheel of a truck (Fig. 1.13), pushing
less is the force needed to produce the same
the pedals of a bicycle, etc., a pair of forces or
turning effect and vice-versa. couple is applied for rotation.
1.3 COUPLE
A single force alone does not cause rotation of
a pivoted body. Actually rotation is always produced
by a pair of forces. In the above examples, rotation
occurs due to the force externally applied and the
force of the reaction at the pivoted point. The force
"'
,,,u
Ill\\
of reaction produced at the pivot is equal in
Fig. I.IO Turning a water tap Fig.1.11 Tightening the cap
magnirude but opposite in direction to the applied
force. The moment of the force of reaction about
the pivot is zero because its distance from the axis
of rotation is zero, so the force of reaction at the
fixed point (or pivot) is not explicitly shown in
Fig. 1.3 to Fig. 1.8. The pair of forces, formed
by the external force and the force of reaction, Fig. 1.12 Turning a key Fig. 1.13 Turning a
is called a couple. Thus, two equal and opposite in a lock steering wheel
.,, 4: ----
 ~foment of couple : Fig. 1.14 illustrates the (ii) the algebraic sum of moments of all the
effect produced by a couple. AB is a bar which forces about the fixed point is zero, so they do
is piYoted at a point 0. At the ends A and B, two not change the rotational state of the body.
equal and opposite forces, each of magnitude F, A body preserving its state (static or dynamic)
are applied. The perpendicular distance between in the presence of two or more forces is said to
the two forces is AB (= d) which is called the be in equilibrium. Thus,
couple arm. The two forces cannot produce
translational motion as their resultant sum in any When a numher rf forces acting on a body
direction is zero. but each force is capable of produce no change in its state of rest or of
producing a turning effect on the bar in the same linear or rotational motion, the body is said to
direction. Thus, the two forces together form a be in a state of equilibrium.
couple which rotates the bar about the point 0.
Kinds of equilibrium
In Fig. 1.14. the two forces rotate the bar in
Equilibrium is of two kinds : (1 ) static
antidoch,ise direction. ,--...
.,_____ d-----.i•[ equilibrium, and (2) dynamic equilibrium .
(1) Static equilibrium : When a body remains
:1__.,, {j in a state of rest under the influence of several
forces, the body is in static equilibrium.
Fig. 1.14 Couple action Examples : (i) In Fig. 1.15, if a body lying
~foment of force F at end A on a table top is pulled by a force F to its left
= Fx OA (anticlockwise) and by an equal force F/ to its right (along the
Moment of force F at end B same line), the body does not move. The reason
= F x OB (anticlockwise) is that the applied forces are equal and opposite
moment of both and also along the same line, so they balance
Total moment of couple (i.e.,
the forces)= F x OA + F x OB each other (i.e., there is no net horizontal force
on the body). Hence, the body remains at rest
= F x (QA + OB) = F x AB (i.e., in static equilibrium).
= Fxd (anticlockwise)
Thus,
Moment of = Either force x perpendicular
oouple distance between the two forces
Fig. 1.15 A body in static equilibrium
(or couple arm) .. (1.3)
(ii) If a book is lying on a table, the weight
1.4 EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES of the book exerted on the table vertically
We have read that when a single force acts on downwards is balanced by an equal and opposite
a body, it can produce translational motion if the force of reaction exerted by the table on the book
body is free to move or can produce rotational vertically upwards. Thus, the book is in static
motion if the body is pivoted or fixed at a point. equilibrium.
a
But in certain circumstances it is possible for body (iii) In a beam balance, when the beam is
to preserve its state of rest or motion even when balanced in horizontal position, the clockwise
several forces are acting on it For this to happen, moment of force due to the object on its right pan
the force must satisfy the following two conditions; balances the anticlockwise moment of force due to
(i) the resultant of all the forces is zero, so the weights on its left pan and the beam has no
they do not change either the state of rest or of rotational motion i.e., it is in static equilibrium.
linear motion of the body, and
5
 .
the anticlockwise moment is .takenkpositive' ...vv1ltle
(2) D~·namk rquilibrium : Wh"n a body .
remains in the same stat~ of nu,tfon (trJnslationnl the clockw1se mo~ne~t 1s f ta en negative
or rotational), under the influcm.-c Clf sc\'cml fon:cs, According to t11e prmc,p1c o moments, if th ·
al~"t'braic sum of mo11u•11ts of ,e
all the forces' aCling
the hody is said to be in d)·namic tq11ili/,ri11m. ' :
"" tht bmfv, about the axis of rotation is z,fro
Examplts : (i) A rain dn,p rral'hl'S tht' l'arth's th,• body ;s m• ,·q111·1·1 .
, mum. Thus, '
surface with a cr•nstant wlocity. 1l1c ,n,ight of
the f-alling ctn,p is halan('N hy the sum l'f the Acrnr,iillN to thr principle of moments, in
buoyant force and the forl'(' due tll fril·tion (or rquilihrium
\'isrosity) Clf air. Thus, th(' net fom! on the drop sum of the anticlockwise
moments
is zem. Sl, it falls down with a constant \'ckacity. = sum of the clockwise moments ...(1,4)
(ii) An 3l'f\"'{'lane m.,,.l'S at a constmt hdght wh"n
upward lift on it rolanl'es its weight downwards. A physical balance (or beam balance) Works
th n of moments.
(iii) A stone tied at the end of a string when on e pri ciple
whirled in a cin:ular path \\ith a unifonn speed is Verificalio11 of the principle of
moments
in dynamic equilihrium hecause the tension in the Suspend a metre rule horizontally from a fixed
thread at o as
string prO\ides the centripetal force required for support by means of a strong
cir'7uli.lf motion*. shown in Fig. 1.16. Now suspend two spring
on either side
Similarly. the motion of a planet around the balances A and B on the metre rule
slotted weights w
sun or the motion of a satellite around the planet of the thread. Suspend some
e A and ~
or the motion of an electron around the nucleus and w on the spring balanc
tilt to one side.
of an atom, are examples of dynamic equilibrium. respecti;ely. The metre rule may
weights on the
In each case, the force of attraction on the Now adjust either the slotted
n of the spring
mo,ing body provides the necessary centripetal spring balances or the positio
force for circular motion. balances on either side of the thread from O in
Conditions for equilibrium such a way that the metre rule becomes horizontal
From the above examples, we find that the agam.
follo"ing two conditions must be satisfied for a
body to be in equilibrium.
(1) The resultant of all the forces acting on the
body should be zero.
(2) The algebraic sum of moments of all the
forces acting on the body about the point of
rotation should be zero i.e., the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the axis of
rotation must be equal to the sum of the Fig. 1.16 Verification ofprinciple of moments
clockwise mome nts about the same axis.
Let the weight suspended from the spring
1.5 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
balance A on the right side of the thread be W1
When several forces act on a pivoted body, at a distance OA = / , while the weight suspended
1
they tend to rotate it about an axis passing from the spring balance B on the left side of the
through the pivot The resultant moment of all the thread be W at a distance OB = 1 •
2 2
forces about the pivoted point is obtained by
taking the algebraic sum of the moment of each The weight W1 tends to tum the metre rule
W tends to tum the
force about that point To find the algebraic sum, clockwise, while the weight 2
metre rule anticlockwise.
* Refer section 1.8.
6
- Clockwise moment of weight W1 about the In equilibrium, when the metre rule is
point O = W1 x 11 horizontal, it is found that W1/ 1 = W2 l2
Anticlockwise moment of weight W2 about l'he i.e., clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
point O = W2 x 12 This verifies the principle of moments .

.~ EXAMPLES I
t. A body is pivotl'd at n point. A force of to N is Let the force required be F' newton, then
applied at a distance of 30 cm from the pivot. Moment of force = F' x 3 Nm ....(ii)
Calculate the moment of force about the pivot.
From eqns. (i) and {ii),
Given, F = 10 N, r = 30 cm= 0-3 m
F' x 3 = 150
Moment of force = F x r = 10 x 0-3 = 3 N m
2. The moment of a force of 5 N about a point p is F' = -150
3
=50 N
2 N m. Calculate the distance of point of application 5. In Fig. 1.17, a roller of diameter 0·4 m is raised on
of the force from the point P. the pavement XY by F .--:;:,o-t---..::
2
Given, moment of force = 2 N m, F = 5 N forces F I and F 2 each
If the perpendicular distance of the point of application of magnitude 10 N. y
of force from the point P is r metre, then Compare the torques
Moment of force = force x distance produced by the two
or 2=5xr forces.
2 Given, F 1 = F2 = 10 N Fig. 1.17
r = s=0·4m
Perpendicular distance of point of rotation X from
3. A mechanic can open a nut by applying a force of the force F 1 is d 1 = 0-4 m while that of force F2 is
150 N while using a lever handle of length 40 cm. 1
How long a handle is required if he wants to open
d1 =
2 x 0•4 m = 0-2 m
it by applying a force of only 50 N ? Torque produced by force F1 F1Xd1
Torque produced by force F2 = F2 X d 2
In the first case, F = 150 N, r = 40 cm = 0-4 m
The moment of force needed to open the nut 10Nx0-4m 2
= -
= 150 N x 0·4 m = 60 N m .....(i) 10N x 0-2m 1
In the second case, F = 50 N, 6. The wheel shown in the diagram (Fig. 1.18) has a
If he uses the handle of length L m, then fixed axle passing through 0. The wheel is kept
Moment of force = 50 N x L m = 50 L Nm ....(ii) stationary under the action of (i) a horizontal force
F 1 at A and (ii) a vertical force F 2 at B.
From eqns. (i) and (ii),
SOL = 60 (a) Show the direction of force F 2 in the diagram.
60 (b) Which of the force, F 1 .--Ar-:::::--- • F
or L = - = l·2m 1
50 or F 2, is greater ?
4. The iron door of a building is 3 m broad. It can be (c) Find the ratio between
opened by applying a force of 100 N normally at the forces F1 and F2•
the middle of the door. Calculate : (a) the torque Given : AO = 2·5 cm,
needed to open the door, (b) the least force and its BO' = l ·5 cm and O'O
point of application to open the door. = 2·0 cm. Fig. 1.18
(a) Given, F = 100 N, distance of point of application of (a) The force F 1 applied at A F2
force, r = l x breadth of door= l x 3 m = 1-5 m produces a clockwise A
2 2
Moment of force (torque) needed to open the door
moment on the wheel.
It can be balanced by
B Fj
=Fxr =100Nxl-5m=150Nm ...(i) applying the force F 2 at B
O' 0
(b) The force required will be least if it is applied at the in a direction such that it
farthest point from the hinges. Therefore the force should produces an anticlockwise
be applied normally at the free end of the door. i.e., at a moment. Therefore vertical
force of magnitude F2 at B
~
distance of 3 m from the hinges. Fig. 1.19
7
 tion (b) (i) The effect of the two forces about the
point X is to
should be applied in the downward direc on.
m, produce clockwise rotati
as shown in Fig. 1.19 such that in equilibriu point Y is to
Fl X 0A = F2 X 00'. (ii) The effect of the two forces about the
0A of point of produce clockwise rotation.
(b) Since the perpendicular distance
the 8. Two forces each of magnitude 2 N act vertically
application of force F1 from 0 is greater than ends
perpendicular distance 00' of point of applicatio
n of upwards and downwards respecti~ely _at ~e two
has to be length 1 m whic h 1s pivo ted at its
force F2 from 0, so in magnitude, force F2 of a uniform rod of
of the arra ngem ent and
greater than force F1 to achieve equilibrium. centre. Draw a diagram
0A (clockwis e) rmine the resultant moment of forces about
the
(c) Moment of force F1 about 0 = F1
x dete
. .
Moment of force F2 about 0 = F2 x 00' mid-point of the rod.
below. AB
(anticlockwise) The arrangement is shown in _Fig. 1.21 given
is the rod which is pivoted at its centre 0 .
When the wheel is in equilibrium position,
Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment rF = 2N •
i.e., F1 x 0A = F2 x 00'
A 0
F2 OA
.....(i)
Fi = 00' Fig. 1.21
Given, 0A =2·5 cm and 00' =2·0 cm
Substituting the values of 0A and 00' in eqn.
(i), Given, AB =1 m :. OA =OB =0-5 m
0
the ratio of forces Moment of force F (= 2 N) at A about the point
F x 0A = 2 x 0·5 =1·0 Nm (cloc
= kwis e)
F2 2-5
-Fi =-2-0 or F2 : 1 F = S : 4 0
Moment of force F (= 2 N) at B about the point
7. The following diagram (Fig. 1.20) shows two
parallel = F x OB = 2 x 0·5 =l ·ONm (clockwise)
nitude :. Total moment of forces about the mid-point 0
and opposite forces F1 and F2 each of mag
dista nce
S N, with their lines of action separat.ed by a = l·O + 1·0 = 2·0 Nm (clockwise).
ted midw ay betw een F
of 2 m. A point X is pivo 1 on a knife
a poin t Y is pivo ted on F • 9. A uniform metre rule rests horizontally
and F~ whil e 2 10 g is
forces edge at the 60 cm mark when a mass of
(a) Calculate the total moment of the two suspended from one end. Draw a diag ram of the
about the points (i) X, and (ii) Y.
forces arrangement.
(b) State the effect produced by the two (a) At which end must this mass be suspende
d?
about the points (i) X, and (ii) Y.
(b) What is the mass of the rule ?
y 90 cm
(c) The IO g mass is now shifted to the
mark. In which direction must the knife edge
F2 :: 5N
t
2m be shifted to make the rule hori zontal agai
n?
AB which
l (a) Fig. 1.22 shows a uniform metre rule
mark).
F1 :: 5N rests horizontally on the knife edge at O (60 cm
Fig. 1.20 has
the
Let M g be the mass of the rule. A uniform rule
of point X from either of leng th, so
(a) (i) Perpendicular distance unifonn distribution of mass throughout its
50 cm
½
forcesF1 orF2 is x2m = 1 m its weight Mg acts at its middle point, i.e. at the
mark.
:. Moment of force F1 about X = 5 N x I rn
100cm

I~
= S Nm (clockwise) 0 50 60

and moment of force Fz about X = S N x I m

A' !0
= S N m (clockwise) 10g
Hence total moment of the two forces abou t X 'f-/
= =
S + S 10 N m (c:lockwise) M~

(ii) Perpendicular distance of point Y from

the force F1 is Fig.1.22
2 m, while it is i.ero from the force F 2
•
wise
:. Moment of force F1 about Y = S N x 2 m The weight Mg of the rule produces an anti-clock
balance
= 10 Nm (clockwise) moment about the knife edge O. In order to
(i.e., at
and moment of force F2 about Y = 0 it, 10 g mass must be suspended at the end B
mom cni
Hence total moment of the two forces about Y the mark 100 cm) to produce a clockwise
= 10 Nm (clockwise) about the knife edge O.
8
 (b) From the principle of moments, (i) When the rule is of negligible mass.
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Mg X (60 - 50) = 10 g X ( 100 - 60) In the absence of support at the end B by the
or Mg x 10 = 10 g x 40 spring balance, the rule will turn clockwise about
:. Mass of rule M = 40 g. the pivot A due to weight 40 kgf at the 40 cm
(c) When the 10 g mass is shifted to the 90 cm mark, its mark. To keep the rule in equilibrium (i.e. , horizontal),
distance from the knife edge reduces resulting in decrease a force F (say) is needed upwards at the end B as
of clockwise moment. So the knife edge must be shifted shown in Fig. 1.24 whic h i s provided by the
away from the 10 g mass to reduce the distance bet ween spring balance. So the reading of the spring balance
the knife edge and mass M so as to make the anti- will be F.
clockwise moment by M equal to the reduced value of A+------100cm----~
clock-wise moment.
10. On a see-saw, two children of masses 30 kg and
SO kg are sitting on one side of it at distances 2 m
L·~~,~. f F

and 2·5 m respecth•ely from its middle. Where Fig.1.24

should a man of mass 74 kg sit to balance it? In equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 1.24,
Let two children be sitting on the left ann. They will Clockwise moment about the point A
produce anticlockwise moment due to their weights
= Anticlockwise moment about the point A
about the middle point of see-saw.
or 40 kgf x 40 cm = F x 100 cm
Total anticlockwise moment
= 30 kgf x 2 m + 50 kgf x 2-5 m 40x40
:. F= 100 kgf = 16 kgf
= 60 kgf x m + 125 kgf x m = 185 kgf x m
To balance it, the man should sit on the right arm so Thus the reading of spring balance will be 16 kgf.
as to produce a clockwise moment about the middle (ii) When the rule is of mass 20 kg i.e., weight 20 kgf.
point. Let bis distance from the middle be x m. Then The weight 20 kgf of the rule will act at the
Clockwise moment= 74 kgf xx m = 74 x kgf x m 50 cm mark, since the metre rule is uniform. As
By the principle of moments, in equilibrium shown in Fig. 1.25, both the weight 40 kgf and
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment the weight of rule 20 kgf produce clockwise
185 = 74 X moments about the point A, so a force F is needed
upwards at the end B to keep the rule horizontal.
or x =14
185 m =2·5 m (on the h
ot er s1'de.
)

The man should sit at a distance 2·5 m from the middle A '-------100cm----~

on the other side. I•&---+---- 50 c~~ 1 [IF

~ 40 cm T
11. Fig. 1.23 below shows a uniform metre rule AB ~ ~ kgf
pivoted at its end A at the zero mark and supported 40 kgf
at the other end B by a spring balance when a Fig. 1.25
weight of 40 kgf is suspended at its 40 cm mark.
This rule stays horizontal. Find the reading of the In equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 1.25,
spring balance when the rule is of (i) negligible Total clockwise moment about the point A
mass, (ii) mass 20 kg. = Anticlockwise moment about the point A
SPRING BALANCE or 40 kgf x 40 cm + 20 kgf x 50 cm
AO
, r : - - - - - - - - -------+i
PIVOT B = F x 100 cm
o 10 20 30 50 60 70 80 90 100cm (40x40) + (20x50)
or F = l OO kgf = 26 kgf
40 kgf
Fig. 1.23 ----- ----. Thus the reading of spring balance will be 26 kgf.

i
~
➔
(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : ➔
(b) p =mv
(Choose the correct answer from the options given ➔

below). (c) p = mv

1. The correct expression for force is : {d) F= mp

➔ ➔ ➔ ➔
(a) F = ma (mass m is constant) Ans. (a) F = ma (mass mis constant)
.~
9
 (B) CENTRE OF GRAVIT~/
1.6 CENTRE OF GRAVITY i.e., W = w 1 + w2 + w3 + .... where Wis the total
We have read in class IX that the gravitational weight of the body. Now the question arises
force between two masses is always attractive. where should the weight W act ? The weight W
Earth attracts every particle towards its centre by is considered to act at a point G such that the
the force of gravity acting on the particle which algebraic sum of
is called the weight w of the particle. Each body moments due to weights
can be considered to be made up of a large wl' w2' .... of each
number of particles of weight wl' w 2, w 3, .••. As particle about the point
the size of the body is quite small in comparison G is zero. The point G is
to the size of the earth, the force of gravity w called the centre of
acting on these particles can be assumed to be gravity of the body. In
parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 1.36. All other words, the body
these parallel forces acting in the same direction can be considered as a
(i.e., vertically downwards towards the centre of point particle of weight w
earth) can be replaced by a single force W of W placed at its centre of Fig. J.36 Centre of gravity
magnitude equal to the sum of all these forces gravity G. Thus,
13
 ~~
11tt rtntre o.f ~rcn·it_,· (C.G) o.f ci body i.t a triangular lamina, a rectangle,. a parallelogram, a
d&t point al,out which tire a(r:fi>mic .mm of square lamina, a rod, and a cylinder.
moments c>/ w,•i.r:lrt.f ,~( all the particles
ronstiluting the I><"~" i.i. :.ao. 11,r t•11tire weight
of 1k ~ · can l>c co11sitlcn·tl to tlct at this
point. MM'S<>e1·er the />()dy is placed.

.\'ott : (1) 77,c position of the centre of gravity

GG G
CIRCULAR RING CIRCULAR DISC TRIANGULAR LAMINA

~0~
of a i><l<fy of gil'(·n mass dt.'pends on its shape
i.e.. <111 the Jistribwion of mass (of particles)
in it. It changes if the body is defom1ed.
RECTANGLE PARALLELOGRAM SQUARE
Example : The centre of gravity of a
strail"ht
e uniform wire is at the middle of its
G O·····............~ .................o
length. But if the same wire is bent into the
form of a circle, its centre of gravity will then ROD CYLINDER

be at the centre of the circle. Fig. 1.37 Centre of gravity of some regular objects
(2) It is not necessary that the centre of
Centre of gravity and the balance point
gravity always be within the material of the body.
A solid body can be balanced by supporting
Example : The centre of gravity of a ring
it at its centre of gravity. For example, a unifonn
or a hollow sphere lies at its centre where
there is no material. metre rule has its centre of gravity at the
50 cm mark. It can be balanced on a knife edge
(3) By the concept of centre of gravity, a
(or finger tip) by keeping it exactly below the 50
body of weight W can be considered as a point
cm mark as shown in Fig. 1.38. It is possible
particle of weight W at its centre of gravity.
because the algebraic sum of moments of the
Centre of gravity of some regular uniform objects weights of all the particles of the rule about the
knife edge (or finger tip) is zero.
Pesition of centre of gravity
Metre rule
Mid-point of rod (Fig. 1.37). 30 40

Geometric centre (Fig. 1.37).

Knife edge
Geometric centre of the sphere.
Fig. 1.38 A metre rule supported on a knife edge
Mid-point on the axis of cylinder at its mid-point
(Fig. J.37).
Similarly, a square thin sheet (or lamina) can
At a height h/4 from the base, on its
axis (if h = height of cone). be balanced on the tip of a nail as shown in
• 11ow ame At a height h/3 from the base, on its Fig. 1.39.
axis (if h = height of cone).
Centre of ring (Fig. 1.37). ' I
'' I
The point of intersection of '"3,'
medians (Fig. 1.37). SQUARE LAMINA
':~,

.....
Jandna.
The point of intersection of the
diagonals (Fig. 1.37)•

Fig 1.37 shows the position _of cen~ of gra~ity

I
, ::
I I I
I I
'

NAIL
'
''

by the point G for a circular nng, a crrcular disc, Fig. 1.39 A sq11are sheet balanced on the tip of a nail

14 - - - - - - - - -- - J
 When a body is freely suspended from a from the hole a, on a pin (or a nail) clamped
point, it comes to rest (i.e. stops oscillating) in horizontally on a retort stand. Check that the
such a position that its centre of gravity lies lamina is free to oscillate on the nail about the
vertically below the point of suspension. Thjs fact point of suspension. When the lamina has come
can be used to locate the position of the centre to rest, draw a straight line ad along the plumb
of gravity of an im.'gular lamina. line.
Determination of centre of gravity of an irregular Repeat the procedure by suspendi ng the
lamina by tlie method of balance using a plumb lamina through the hole b and then through the
line hole c for which we get straight lines be and cf
respectively. It is noticed that the lines ad, be and
Let A be an irregular
cf intersect each other at a common point G
lamina in Fig. I .40, for
which is the position of the centre of gravity of
which the position of the
the lamina.
centre of gravity is to be
determined. Make three fine Note : For the stable equilibrium of a body,
holes at a, b and c, near the its centre of gravity must be as low as
edge of the lamina. Now possible. It must be above the base and near
suspend the given lamina the geometric centre of the body.
along with a plumb line Fig. 1.40 Centre of
gravity of lamina

IEXERCISE-1 (B) l~:-·••,c-•1••::r~,,...,~ , ,_~-.,,..- --..----,

.. - ~-.::..._-~.-.:..~~~,,;,...,_.._· ,.,,, ; - +. . -~ ....__,__ _ _ __

(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : (d) at any point on its surface

(Choose the correct answer from the options given Ans. (a) at its geometrical centre
below).
4. The centre of gravity of a hollow cone of heigth h is
1. With respect to centre of gravity, which of the at distance x from its vertex where the value of x is :
following statements are correct ? (a) h/3 (b) h/4
(a) The position of centre of gravity of a body (c) 2h13 (d) 3h14 Ans. (c) 2h13
depends on its shape.
5. Where should the centre of gravity of a body be
(b) It is not necessary that the centre of gravity of a
located for stable equilibrium ?
body should always be within the material of the
(a) above the base (b) near the geometric centre
body.
(c) can be anywhere (d) both (a) and (b)
(c) A body of weight W can be considered as a point
particle of weight Wat its centre of gravity. Ans. (d) both (a) and (b)
(d) All of the above 6. Two objects have the same mass but different shapes.
Ans. (d) All of the above Which object would have a higher centre of gravity?
2. The centre of gravity of a body is the point about (a) the one with a larger base
which the algebraic sum of moments of weights of (b) the one with a smaller base
all the particles constituting the body is : (c) both would have the same centre of gravity
(a) I (b) > 1 (d) it depends on the material of the obejct
(c) <I (d) 0 Ans. (d) 0 Ans. (b) the one with a smaller base
3. The centre of gravity of a unifonn ball is : (B) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS :
(a) at its geometrical centre
1. Can the centre of gravity of a body be situated outside
(b) at its bottom its material ? Give an example.
(c) at its topmost point Ans. Yes. e.g. C.G. of a ring

15
 ~
(!&ki: W!

2. What is the position of the centre of gravity of a : diagram to show its rest position. In the dia -
(a) rectangular lamina the point of suspension by the letter S and the ' lllark
of gravity hy the letter G. centr
{b) cylinder ? e
Ans. (a) At the point of intcrsrl'lion of its diaionals. 4. A uniform flat circular rim is balanced on a h
.
(h) Al the mid point ,,n the axis of cylimkr. vertical nat·1 by supportmg
. 't .
I at a pomt A, as sh s arp
in Fig. 1.41 . Mark the position of the centre of grao~n
3. At which point is thl' n·nlrt' of grnvity situated in : of the rim in the diagram by the letter G. v,ty
(a) a triangular lamina nnd
A
lbl a circular lamina ?
.-\ns. \al At the- point of intersection of its medians.
tb) Al the centre of circular lamina.
4. Where is the rentre of gravity of a uniform ring WALL
. ed 'I.
s1tuat RIM
Ans. At the centre of ring.
5. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(i) 'The position of the centre of gravity of
Fig. 1.41
a body
remains unchanged even when the body is S. Fig. 1.42 shows three pieces of card board of unifon
n
defonned.' thickness cut into three different shapes. On each
(ii) 'The centre of gravity of a freely suspended diagram draw two lines to indicate the position of the
body
always lies vertically below the point of centre of gravity G.
suspension'.

□ DO
Ans. (i) False (ii) True.
(C) SHORT QUESTIONS :

1. Define the term 'centre of gravity of a body'.

2. State a factor on which the position of the centre Fig. 1.42
of
gravity of a body depends. Explain your answer with
an example.
(D) LONG QUESTIONS :

3. A square card board is suspended by passing a pin 1. Explain how will you detennine experimentally the
through a narrow bole at its one comer. Draw a position of the centre of gravity for a triangular lamina
(or a triangular piece of card board).

CIRCULAR MOTION
1.7 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
V B V
When a particl.e moves with a constant speed NORTH
in a circular path, its motion is said to be
uniform circular motion. In such a motion, a particle C A WEST
travels equal distances along the circular path in EAST
equal iofenrals of time, so the spe.ed of particle is V
V D SOUTH
nnifoon. but die direction of motion of the particle
Fig. 1.43 Direction of velocity in uniform circular motion
~ at each point of the circular path.
The
~ dtange in the direction of motion impli CD and DA in the same interval of time t = T/4
es
daaf• Y ~ of the particle is non-uniform (or where T is the time taken by the particle to
~ ) Le., the motion is accelerated. complete one round of the circular path. Thus, the
J)lrection of velocity at any instant in a speed of the particle is constant (or uniform), but
~ path : Fig. 1.43 shows a particle moving the direction of motion of the particle is different
m a circular path in a horizontal plane with at different points of the circular path. At any
ypiform speed v in an anticlockwise direction. point, the direction of motion is along the tangent
The particle travels each quarter of circle AB, BC, drawn at that point of the circular path.
16
 At the point A, the direction of motion of the B

particle is towards north; after completing F

quarter of circle, at the point B, the direction of
motion of the particle is towards west; after C • A
completing half circle, at the point C, the
direction of motion of the particle is towards F
south and after completing tlu·ee-quarters of circle D
when the paiticle is at tl1e point D, its direction Fig. 1.44 Direction o,ff orce in uniform circular motion.
of motion is towards east. Thus, the velocity of
the particle in circular motion is variable or the Examples :
circular motion is an accelerated ,notion even , __{1) In an atom, an electron moves around the
though the speed of the particle is uniform. nucleus in a circular path for which the
✓,,- Difference between uniform circular motion required centr~petal force is obt~ined from
and uniform linear motion : In unifonn linear the electrostatic force of attract10n on the
motion, the speed and velocity, both are constant negatively charged electron by the
and acceleration is zero i.e., uniform linear motion / positively charged nucleus.
is an unaccelerated motion, while in a uniform /4)
A planet moves around the sun in an
circular motion the velocity is variable (although elliptical path for which the gravitational
the speed is uniform), so it is an accelerated force of attraction on the planet by the sun
motion. provides the necessary centripetal force.
1.8 CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL -'3) Moon moves around Earth in an elliptical
FORCE path for which the gravitational force of
Centripetal force : We have read that a force attraction on Moon by Earth provides the
is needed to change the direction of motion of a / required centripetal force.
particle (or to change the velocity of a particle) _{4) When a stone tied at the end of a string is
i.e., to produce acceleration. A particle moving in whirled in a circular path holding its other
a circular path, continuously changes its direction end in the hand, the tension in the string
of motion at each point of its path. This change provides the centripetal force. In the
in direction of motion can not be brought without absence of this force i.e., tension, the stone
a force. Thus, the motion in circular path is will not tum to move in a circular path.
possible only under the influence of a force which In all the above exainples, the body moves in
is termed as the centripetal force*. At each point a circular or near circular path with a uniform
of the circular path, this force is directed towards speed under the influence of a centripetal force
the centre of the circle as shown in Fig. 1.44. and it is in a state of dynatnic equilibrium.
Thus, the direction of force and also of Centrifugal force : A force assumed (by an
acceleration changes at each point of the circular observer moving with the body) to be acting on the
path, but its magnitude remains the same i.e., body in a direction away from the centre of circular
acceleration is variable (or non-uniform). Hence, path, is called centrifugal force. Thus, centrifugal
for a body moving in a circular path, a force is force is in a direction opposite to the direction of
needed which acts as the centripetal force. centripetal force. Its magnitude is the saine as that
Thus, centripetal force is the force acting on of the centripetal force. But the centrifugal force
a body moving in a circular path, in a direction is not the force of reaction of the centripetal force
towards the centre of the circular path. because action and reaction do not act on the saine
* The word centripetal means centre seeking. body. It is not a real force, but it is a fictitious
17
force assumed by an observer moving in a circular the string provides the centripetal force needed
path alongwith the body. To understand this force, for the circular motion.
consider the following expe1iment. The person at A observes the ball
Experiment : Fig. 1.45 shows a ball tied at stationary. He needs to consider the following as
. h b . two
one end of a string, the other end of which is tied forces to b e actrng on t e all m order
. b . to
at the centre of a men-y-go-round. Initially when understand h1s o servat10n.
the platform of merry-go-round is stationai-y, the (i) the tension T of the string towards the
ball is seen stationary and the string is loose. As centre of merry-go-round, and
the platfom1 starts rotating, the ball rolls towards
the edge of the men-y-go-round and the string (ii) the centrifugal force away from the centre
becomes tight due to tension T developed in it. Since the ball according to his observation
Now let us consider the state of the ball as seen always remains stationary in front of him, the
by two observers (i) standing outside the merry- above two forces must be equal and opposite, so
go-round on the ground at M, and (ii) standing that the net force on the ball is zero. Thus, a
on the platform of the merry-go-round at A. person on the rotating platform can explain his
observation only when he considers the
Man (on the ground) centrifugal force alongwith the force of tension in
D the string.
M
Case : If the string breaks when the ball is
in position P as shown in Fig. 1.46, the force of
tension T in the string ceases to act. Now the
person at M standing on the ground will observe
that the ball is moving in a straight line along the
path PT (tangent drawn at the point P on the
circular path), while the person at A standing on
Merry-go-round the merry-go-round will observe the ball at
positions P', P", P"', .. . when he will be at
Fig. 1.45 A ball tied at the end of a string moving in positions A', A", A"', .... respectively i.e., he will
a circular path on a merry-go-round
observe that the ball always remains in front of
The person standing on the ground at M him moving radially away from him. He attributes
outside the merry-go-round observes that the ball this motion to centrifugal force acting on the ball
is moving in a circular path (shown by dotted away from the centre. Thus, the person in a
line), while the person standing on the merry-go-
round at A observes that the ball is stationary
placed just in front of him at P. As the merry-
go-round rotates, the position of the person on the
platform changes from A to A', A", A"', ...... and
..
the ball reach es at th e pos1t1on P', P" , P"', .....
respectively, as if it remains at rest always just
in front of him. The different observations of the
same motion by the two persons at M and A are
explained as follows. T Merry-go-round
Explanation : For the person at M, the ball ~

moves in a circular path because the tension T in Fig. 1.46 Centrif ugal force

18
rotating frame (merry-go-round) has to assume the string acting towards the centre (i.e., the
presence of the centrifugal force. centripetal force). A force which really does not
Conclusion : The centrifugal force is not a exist, but is considered to describe (or understand)
real force, it is a .fictitious force. The only real a certain motion, is called a fictitious force (or
force involved here is the force of tension in the virtual force).

____
r·~~-.....,.,.,~~---
..,
; . ,_ --- .,.,. ,...__ . ._. ___ -IEXERCISE-1 (C) I
(A) 1\IULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE : (b) a pendulum swinging back and forth
(Choose the correct answer from the options given (c) a satellite orbiting the earth at a constant altitude
below).
(d) a ball rolling down a hill
1. \Vhich of the following quantities remains constant
Ans. (c) a satellite orbiting the earth at a constant altitude
in a uniform circular motion ?
(a) Velocity (b) Speed (B) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS :
(c) Acceleration (d) Both velocity and speed 1. Is it possible to have an accelerated motion with a
Ans. (b) Speed constant speed ? Name such type of motion.
2. The direction of motion in circular motion : Ans. Yes, uniform circular motion
(a) is linear 2. Give an example of motion in which speed remains
uniform, but the velocity changes.
(b) is along the tangent at that point of the circular
Ans. Circular motion
path
( c) towards the centre (d) none of these 3. Name the force required for circular motion. State its
direction.
Ans. (b) is along with tangent at that point
Ans. Centripetal force acting towards the centre
of the circular path
4. Is centrifugal force a real force ? Ans. No
3. The direction of centripetal force is always :
( a) along the tangent at that point of the circular path 5. State whether the following statements are true or false
by writing T/F against them.
(b) towards the centre
(a) Earth moves around Sun with a uniform velocity.
(c) outwards from the centre
(b) The motion of Moon around Earth in a circular
(d) none of the above
path is an accelerated motion.
Ans. (b) towards the centre
(c) A uniform linear motion is unaccelerated, while
4. Centrifugal force is : a uniform circular motion is an accelerated
(a) a real force motion.
(b) the force of reaction of centripetal force (d) In a uniform circular motion, the speed
(c) a fictitious force continuously changes because the direction of
(d) directed towards the centre of the circular path : motion changes.
Ans. (c) a fictitious force (e) A boy experiences a centrifugal force on his
5. The difference between centripetal and centrifugal hand when he rotates a piece of stone tied at
force is: one end of a string, holding the other end in the
hand. Ans. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) F
(a) they both act in the same direction
(b) they both act in opposite directions (C) SHORT QUESTIONS :
(c) they both have different magnitudes 1. Differentiate between uniform linear motion and
(d) none of the above uniform circular motion.
Ans. (b) they both act in opposite directions 2. What is a centripetal force ?
6. Which of the following is an example of uniform 3. Explain the motion of a planet around the sun in an
circular motion ? elliptical path.
(a) a car accelerating on a straight road

19
 4. (a) How does a centripetal force differ from a (a) What will be your observatio~ . when you are
centrifugal force with reference to the direction standing outside the disc ? Exp am.
in which they act ? (b) What will be your observation when y_ou are
(b) Is centrifugal force the force of reaction of the · standing at the centre of the disc ? Explam.
centripetal force ? Ans. (a) The pebble moves in a circular path because
(c) Compare the magnitudes of centripetal and the tension in the string provides the required
centrifugal force. centripetal force. (b) The pebble is stationary just in
Ans. (a) They act in opposite directions (b) No (c) 1 : 1 front because the centrifugal force on the pebble
S. State two differences between centripetal and balances the tension in the string.
centrifugal force. 5. A piece of stone tied at the end of a thread is whirled
(D) LONG QUESTIONS : in a horizontal circle with uniform speed by hand.
Answer the following questions :
1. Explain the meaning of uniform circular motion. Why
is such motion said to be accelerated ? (a) Is the velocity of stone uniform or variable ?

2. Draw a neat labelled diagram for a particle moving in (b) Is the acceleration of stone uniform or variable?
a circular path with a constant speed. In your diagram (c) What is the direction of acceleration of stone at
show the direction of velocity at any instant. any instant ?
3. A uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion. (d) Which force provides the centripeta l f
. d .r. •
reqmre ior circular motion ?
orce
Explain it. State whether the acceleration is uniform
or variable ? Name the force responsible to cause this (e) Name the force and its direction which . ~
acceleration . What is the direction of force at any the hand. ,lets on
instant ? Draw a diagram in support of your answer.
Ans. (a)
. variable (b) variable (c) tow·trli"
~ ., th c ccntr f h
4. A sma11 pebble tied at one end of a string is placed
near the periphery of a circular disc, at the centre of
circular path (cl) tension in the string ( •) h e O
of tension away from the centre of ti ~ _t c reaction
! e

which the other end of the string is tied to a peg. The le circular path.
disc is rotating about an axis passing through its centre.