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==================================================LANGUAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
UNIT 111
THE WRITING SKILLS
Writing Skills

1.1 Overview

Academic literacy writing skills are significant as they play an important role in communication.
To convey messages effectively, accurate use of academic literacy writing skills is strongly
required. Writing remains one of the main ways you will be assessed in universities; so it is an
important skill to master. This section introduces you to the approaches you are required to
follow in order to be effective in these skills. The section also provides you with an overview of
the knowledge, skills and good working practices needed for academic writing in science.

The Writing Process

1.3 Introduction

The writing process is the means by which you discover what you want to say and how you can
say it. Because the writing process is a reflection of your natural thinking process, using it will
enable you to call up ideas you otherwise might not have and express them in language that is
uniquely your own. This section provides you with an overview of the writing process.

1.4 Exploring the Writing Process

A. The writing process
B. Subject, Audience and Purpose
Writing is the process consisting of the following steps:
1. Thinking about the topic
2. Freely jotting down ideas about the topic.
3. Narrowing the topic and writing it in one sentence
4. Selecting and dropping of ideas
 5. Arranging ideas in a plan
6. Writing a first draft
7. Rethinking and rewriting as necessary
8. Writing one or more drafts
9. Proofreading for errors.

Subject, Audience and Purpose

Early in the prewriting phase, writers should give some thought to their subject, audience, and
purpose.

Subject: Choose a subject that you know and care about: Working with children, Life at
Chikanda. Overcoming shyness. How to succeed in college.

 What inspires you

 What angers you?
 What special experience or expertise do you have?
 Do you have passion about the topic?

Audience: How you approach your subject will depend on your readers (your audience).
Keeping your audience in mind will help you know what information to include or to leave out
in your writing task.

Purpose: Next you should think about your purpose:

 Do you want to explain something to your readers?
 Do you want to persuade them that a certain point of view is correct?
 Do you want to entertain , tell a good story or both?

Practice 1 List four subjects about which you might like to write.

1. ___________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________

Practice 2
You have been asked to write a description of your college for the Minister of Education.
Your purpose is to persuade him or her to spend more money to improve your college.
What information should you include? What will your audience want to know?
(Make your notes here)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Gathering Ideas
Here we look at five effective prewriting techniques that will help you get your ideas onto paper.
Try all five and see which one works for you.

A. Free writing
B. Brainstorming
C. Clustering
D. Asking questions
E. Keeping a Journal

Free writing is an excellent method that many writers use to warm up and get ideas. These are
the guidelines: for five, ten or fifteen minutes write rapidly without stopping, about anything that
comes to your head. Don’t stop do worry about grammar, logic, complete sentences or grades.
The point of free writing is to write so fast without listening to the comments from your inner
critic. The voice inside you that says, every time you have an idea, “that is not a good idea; cross
it out”
Free writing is a powerful tool for helping you turn thoughts and feelings into words, especially
when you are not sure about what you want to say.

Focused Rewriting
In focused free writing, you simply try to focus your thoughts on one subject as you free write.
The subject might be one assigned by your instructor, one you choose, or one you have
discovered in unfocused free writing.

Asking Questions
Questions can guide your search for additional information about your topic. For example, you
can answer what, when, where, why, who and how (the 5Ws and H questions) about the
particular event or experience you are writing about.

 When did the event take place?

 What exactly happened

 Who was involved

 Where did it take place

 Why did it occur

 How did it turn out

You can also explore the topic from different view point by answering questions that help you
see think about it in different ways.

 What parts does my topic have? (break it down)

  What do I see, hear, feel when I think about my topic? (describe it)

 What is it similar to and different from? (compare it)

 What value does it have? (evaluate it)

 How useful is it (Apply or use it).

Expository writing

What is expository writing?

Expository writing is the type of written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give
information or inform. The creator of an exposition text cannot assume that the reader or listener
has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important
point to keep in mind for the author is trying to use words that clearly show what they are talking
about.

Elements of effective expository writing

1. Quality of content 7. Sentence variety

2. Clarity of thesis 8. Tone
3. Organization 9. Grammar and clarity
4. Development 10. Emphasis and Rhythm
5. Unity and coherence 11. Punctuation and Mechanics
6. Word choice
12. Reader Adaptation

Quality of Content
The purpose of expository writing is to explain something that is to provide readers with
information worth knowing about. Thus the phrase “quality of content” refers to the significance
of the writer’s topic, the depth of the writer’s knowledge and analysis of the topic.

Clarity of thesis
A thesis concisely states the central point of the easy. It is often called the controlling idea or the
main idea because the subsequent part of the easy should support it. The thesis usually appears in
an essay’s opening paragraph so that the reader will know exactly what point the essay will
discuss.

Organization
Introductory paragraph
Introductory paragraph attempts to arouse the reader’s interest by providing background
information on topic, stressing the significance of the topic, or presenting one or more startling
facts. Introductory paragraphs should lead logically to thesis.

Middle (supporting) Paragraphs

Each middle paragraph has its own point and supporting sentence that supports that point. Often
the main point can be found in the topic sentence, which may appear anywhere in a paragraph or
be implied. Of course, all middle paragraphs must support the essay’s thesis.

A concluding paragraph
Concluding paragraph of an essay may draw a conclusion, make a prediction, provide a summary
or use a combination of these strategies.

Development
A well-developed essay demonstrates depth of analysis and discussion. It includes a sufficient
number of representative and accurate facts, examples, details and explanations to convince the
readers that the thesis is significant and worth their consideration. The reason must be clear,
logical and free of error (no important information or assumptions are left out, compared things
are comparable; generalization are qualified and based on sufficient evidence.)

Writing Paragraphs

Defining and Looking at the Paragraph

A Paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop one main idea. Although there is no
definite length of a paragraph, it is often from five to twelve sentences long. A paragraph
usually occurs with other parts in a longer piece of writing – an essay, article, or letter. Before
studying a longer essay, however, we will look at single paragraphs.

The topic Sentence and Body

A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. Sometimes referred to as focus
sentence, the topic sentence helps organize the paragraph by summarizing the information in the
paragraph, in formal writing, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph
(although it doesn’t always have to be).

It is usually a general sentence and vague (it makes abroad statement about the topic of
discussion) hence usually leaves a reader with the feeling that further information will be
supplied.

Topic Sentence
 A general sentence
 Identifies main idea/topic
 Make broad statement/claims/raises questions
 Open the topic of discussion

Supporting Sentence (body of the paragraph)

 Specific
 Elaborate, provides details and examples
 Answers.
Topic Sentences and Controlling Ideas

Every topic sentence will have a topic and a controlling idea. The controlling idea shows the
direction the paragraph will take.

The controlling idea limits the subject – it tells what the author intends to say about the subject or
controls your topic to the one aspect that you want.

Here are examples:

Zomba is the most expensive city in Malawi for a number of reasons.

 Topic: Zomba
 Topic sentence: Zomba is the most expensive city in Malawi for a number of reasons
 Controlling idea: for a number of reasons.

 Topic sentence: To be an effective Statistician requires certain qualities.

 Topic: Statistician
 Controlling idea: certain qualities
Note: As you can see, the topic sentence provides a focus for the reader; it says what the
paragraph is about. The controlling idea helps the audience understand what you are
saying.

Practice 1

Find and underline the topic sentence in each paragraph below. Look at the sentence that has the
main idea of the entire paragraph.

Paragraph A:

Eating sugar can be worse than eating nothing. Refined sugar provides only empty calories. It
contributes none of the protein, fat, vitamins or minerals needed for its own metabolism in the
body, so these nutrients must be obtained from elsewhere. Sugar tends to replace nourishing food
in the diet. It is a thief that robs us of nutrients. A dietary emphasis on sugar can deplete the
body of nutrients. If adequate nutrients were not supplied by the diet – and they tend not to be a
sugar –rich diet –they must be leached from other body tissues before sugar can be metabolized.
For this reason, a US senate committee labeled sugar as an “anti-nutrient”.
Paragraph B:

Health care will continue to be one of the most important groups of industries in the economy in
terms of job creation. Employment in the health services industries is projected to grow from 8.2
to 11.3 million. New technology and a growing and aging population will increase the demand
for health services. Because of the rapid expansion of health care employment, 7 to 10 fastest
growing occupations between1988-2000 will be health related.

Writing the Topic Sentence

Writing a good topic sentence is an important step toward effective paragraph since the topic
sentence will determine the direction and the scope of the body. The topic sentence should be
limited. It should be carefully worded to express a limited main idea. As a rule, the more limited
the topic sentence, the better the paragraph.

Practice 3

Which of these sentences do you think will produce the best paragraph?

1. Kondwani is a very intelligent student.

2. Malawi is currently problems.

3. Two days at a wildlife club in Kasungu were a great fun.

Explain your answer in the box below

Did you choose 1 and 3?

Topic 1 and 3 are both limited enough to provide the main idea for good paragraphs. Both
are clearly worded to suggest what ideas will follow.

Topic 2 on the other hand, is so broad that the paragraph will include almost anything. Who
or what has a problem? Is it a school in Mayaka? Is it hospital workers in Zomba? Is it an
average consumer? In others words, focus on just one specific problem for an effective
paragraph.

Practice 4

Here is a list of broad topics. Choose two that interest you; then narrow each topic and write
a topic sentence. Make sure that each topic sentence is a complete sentence and limited
enough for you to write a good paragraph.

1. Population growth
2. Climate change
3. Drug use in your community
4. Chemical fertilizer

1. Topic:__________________________________________________________

Narrowed topic
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
 2. Topic:_________________________________________________________

Narrowed topic
______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Identifying supporting points

Once you have decided on your topic and your main controlling idea you need to choose two,
three, or four supporting points for the topic. The topic is what the paragraph or essay is about;
the supporting points are the most important details you have to say about your topic. You will
have generated the supporting points in your pre-writing activities. The main supporting points
should be important, distinct and relevant

Important

Topic Main points

Study Skills
 Summarizing

 Time management

 Buying notebooks (not important)

 Taking notes

Distinct

Each of the main points should be different from all others. None of the points should duplicate
any of the points.

Topic Main points

 Advantages of exercise
 Keep health

 Loss weight

 Stay in good shape

 Get more energy (this is the same as

the first one –not distinct)

Relevant

All the main points should relate to the subject and help develop the reader’s knowledge about
the subject.

Topic Main points

Benefits of gardening
 Fresh air

 Variety of colours (not relevant)

 Physical exercise

 Intimacy with nature

Methods of writing a topic sentence

1. Power (Number statement)

Power number statement is a statement that contains a number word. The number word is
the focus of the sentence. It tells the reader that a list of information will follow.

Helpful number words

 A couple of A number of
Numerous Some of
Many A myriad
Several Four, two, etc.

Examples:

1. Three (major) cities in Malawi have serious pollution problems

2. I enjoy four kinds of music.
3. In summer I enjoyed watching several high sports

2. Occasion/position statement

An occasion/position statement is usually a complex sentence.

Occasion:

 Is the first part of the topic sentence

 Introduces your reasons for writing
 Is the dependent clause
 Can be an event, problem, idea, solution or circumstance that gives you reason to write

Occasion/position beginnings

After As soon as Even though

Although Because In order that, in order to
As, as if Before While
As long as Even Whenever, while
Whenever, whether Even if

Position
  Is the second part of the topic sentence
 States what you want to prove or plan in your paragraph.
 Is the independent clause in a complex sentence

Examples:

1. Even though bike helmets are sometimes unfashionable and uncomfortable, all cyclists
should wear them.
2. If students use chemicals to do experiments, it is important that they learn proper way to
dispose of them.

3. However statements

 Create a compound statement using however in the middle of the sentence. Place
a semi-colon (;) before the word however and comma (,) after the word however.
 Usually the first part will be the occasion (reason for writing); the second part will
state the position. (What you plan or explain.)

Examples:

1. Ants are very small creatures and may seem insignificant; however, scientists around the
world study these insects.
2. The new rules for the college cafeteria seemed unfair to the students; however, the rules
have made the cafeteria a better place to eat.
3. My father is very strict. However, he has a good reason for all his rules.

Other Conjunctive adverbs

 As a result Consequently, still Next
nevertheless
Otherwise meanwhile Instead
Therefore instead Likewise
In fact

Example:

4. And, But, and Or Statements

Use a compound sentence with one of the following conjunctions:
 But, or, yet
 For, and, nor, so

Remember to use a comma before a conjunction.

1. Reptiles are all alike because they have backbones, breath with lungs and have scales, yet
reptiles come in a variety of sizes and shapes.
2. Some people find it difficult to program a VCR, but most will succeed if they just
remember to follow these guidelines.

5. Get their attention

A declarative statement uses a strong verb or action word.
 Teacher’s salaries must be increased.
 Form Four grades at Mulunguzi secondary soared.
 Kwacha filling station offers best service.

6. Rhetorical Question
This kind of question you ask when you want to get someone’s attention, but you do not
really expect an answer, However, I can be difficult to know what to write after a
rhetorical question. This does take a lot of practice.
Examples
 What is your school doing to improve test scores?
 Why can’t college graduates find jobs they want?
  How will future generations solve the ozone problem?

7. Side by Side (Semicolon) Statement

Sometimes using two simple sentences one for the occasion and one for the position is
the right way to go. It is especially powerful if your goal is to put emphasis on your
position.
Examples
 A little exercise may be good; too much exercise can be harmful.
 Throwing a party is a challenge; planning ahead can prevent stress.

8. Appositives:
When we set off a noun phrase with commas, we call this an appositive. An appositive
does not have a verb, it is simply a noun followed by a description that tells more about
the first noun.
Examples
 Likoma, a small island on Lake Malawi, is a haven for tourists.
 The Medulla, an important part of the brain, controls breathing.

9. Using Quotation
Using a quotation in the topic sentence is an easy yet powerful way to start your paper.

Examples:
 Although I usually appreciate the advice I receive from my grandmother, I wish
she could follow the advice of Horace: “Whatever advice you give, be short.”
 If you are tempted to give your best friend advice, at least be aware of the Arab
proverb that says, “Never give advice in a crowd.”

10. The list Statement

A common method for writing a topic sentence is to list categories you wish to
address in your paper. You can use a list of words.
 The corner store offers the best in candy selection, prices and service.
  All college students need money, encouragement, friends and courage.

Use list of phrases:

 Problems with the new school include: poor ventilation, small classrooms,
inadequate lighting.

Use a list of dependent clauses.

 When I found my lost wallet, when I won lotto and met my childhood friend, I
realized that life is great and full of surprises.

Use a list of independent Clauses

Ordering ideas

After you have determined the main points of your essay, you will need to choose a way to
organize your ideas. The way that your ideas are organized can help your readers understand
your material.

Here are three ways to organize your main points:

 Logical

 Chronological

 Spatial

Logical order

Ideas must be explained in a certain order – one point must be explained before another point
(see writing a process) Points must be explained in correct sequence, otherwise readers may be
confused.

Example:
Insert your ATM card into the machine. Then punch personal identification number. Next, push
the button for “withdraw”. After you have entered the amount of cash you want, push the button
for the account that you want to use. Then collect the cash and take your card and receipt.

Chronological order:

Ideas are presented in order of time, from first to last. The details in a paragraph of this kind tend
to answer such questions as ‘what happens first, what happens later, etc.

Example

You may be asked to explain how you spend your day. In this task, you use directional words
such as first, after, next, once, finally and so on.

Random order

Ideas in such paragraphs can be presented in any order without affecting the reader’s
understanding. This type of organization is very rare and it can only be used when all the main
points are of equal value and are not linked together logically or chronologically.

Creating an Outline

Once you have grouped your ideas, you should begin an outline for your essay. Outlining can
help you organize and develop your material. An outline is a formal organized list of the ideas,
explanations, details, examples, and other supporting points in an essay.

Example of an outline

Expository Essays

This is an outline for an expository Essay. Use this example outline as a guideline when writing
an expository essay.

Paragraph #1 – Introduction

Topic Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #1:

____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #2:

___________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #3:

___________________________________________________________________________

Closing Sentence:
____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph #2 – Major Idea #1 is discussed completely and with evidence

Topic Sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #1:

___________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #2:

____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #3:

____________________________________________________________________________

Closing Sentence:
____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph #3 – Major Idea #2 is discussed completely and with evidence

Topic Sentence:
____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #1:

_____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #2:

____________________________________________________________________________

Major Idea #3:

___________________________________________________________________________

Closing Sentence:
___________________________________________________________________________

Writing paragraphs

A Paragraph is a group of closely related sentences. It may be long or short, a section of a longer
piece of writing or complete in itself. A good paragraph should have one idea. All the sentences
in the paragraph should relate to this one idea not side- track from it. In this chapter you will
learn about:

 Structure

 Characteristics
  Types of paragraphs

Paragraph Structure

One way to understand paragraph structure is to think of the word PIE. (P.I.E)

P= Point

I= Information

E= Explanation

Point: Often the point is the topic sentence

 What is the point of this paragraph?

 What claim is being made?

 What will this paragraph prove or discuss?

Information: is the evidence used to support or develop the point.

 How is the point supported with specific data, experiences or other factual
material, what examples can you use

 What kind of information you should include?

Statistic, polls, percentages, data from research,

Personal experience and anecdotes etc.

Explanation: The explanation is the writer’s analysis,

elaboration, evaluation, or interpretation of the points and information given, connecting the
information with the point (topic sentence)
  What does the provided information mean?

 How does it relate to your argument?

 Why is this information important/significant?

Practice 5

Read the passage below and identify points, information and Explanation.

Everyone should take a writing class because learning to read and write effectively helps with
communication skills, which are essential to the working world. Studies show that 95% of
employers name good communication skills as the most important qualification desired in new
hires. This shows just how important those doing the hiring think communication is, which
should be a potent reason for anyone who wants to be hired to consider improving their
communication skills. Consequently, taking a writing class can be an important step towards
obtaining a good career.

Practice:

Let’s practice creating paragraphs using the PIE approach. Select a topic from the box below
and create a statement that makes a Point. Then brainstorm information that could support that
point. Then, brainstorm ways in which you could explain the significance of that point. Finally,
put it all together to write a complete paragraph.

First, select a topic by circling one:

poverty the president legalizing all drugs

rap music the health care system police profiling

music videos the minimum wage climate change

Second, using your topic, write a topic sentence that makes a clear statement of the main claim
you will be arguing in your paragraph:

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Third, brainstorm both concrete information you can use to support your main claim, and also
brainstorm an explanation of the significance of the information you are using.

Information Explanations

that can support the main claim (concrete of the significance of the information.

evidence that proves/illustrates the claim) Answer the question “so what?”
Exercise:

Now put it all together into a paragraph. Remember that PIE paragraphs do not always have to
have this order; while you want to start a paragraph with your main Point, you might alternate
between Information and Explanation, so that your paragraph could look like this: P I  E  I
 E. Choose the format that makes the most effective paragraph for the topic you have chosen:

Essay writing

Introduction, thesis statement, development paragraphs and the conclusion.

Writing the introductory Paragraph

The beginning of your essay is what your reader sees first and where you make an important first
impression. Your introduction is like a small version of your entire paper. It summarizes your
entire paper in a concise and interesting way.

What is the purpose of the introductory paragraph?

The introductory paragraph serves three distinctive functions:

 It gets the reader’s attention and arouses interest

 Sets the tone for the rest of the essay
 Make a contract with reader – an introductory paragraph will tell your reader what will be
covered in your essay (it introduces your subject and presents your thesis.

A good introductory paragraph should have the following:

  The hook (attention grabber) – 3 to 6 sentences that grabs your reader’s attention
immediately and give some indication about the essay’s topic.
 Transition: if necessary, sets the stage for thesis
 Thesis Statement:
Single sentence or two that sums up the essay

Introduction

Opening Sentence (attention grabbers)

1. You may begin with a quotation

2. Anecdote: Describing a personal experience or other people’s experience
3. Rhetorical questions
4. Giving a startling fact or statistics
5. Brief background on the topic.
6. Refutation of a common belief
7. Broad Statement narrowing to a limited subject

Thesis statement

Your original topic sentence, from which your additional paragraphs are developed, is now
called the ‘thesis statement’ of your multi-paragraph composition. A thesis statement
appears in the introductory paragraph.

Functions

A. It hints on the scope of the writing as an outline thesis

B. As a purpose statement
C. As controlling statement
D. As a statement of intent

Conclusion

Any of the methods below, or a combination of methods, may be used to round off your paper.

1. End with a summary and final thought

 2. Include a thought provoking question or a series of questions
3. End with a prediction, recommendation, suggestion, judgment or evaluation.
4. Ending with a statement of the subject of significance
5. Call for further research
 Prediction states what will or may happen in the future
 Recommendation suggests what should be done about a situation or problem
 Evaluation point up to the significance of what has been discussed by focusing
more sharply on result.

Sample: Introductory paragraph

We live in the age of technology. Every day, new technology appears, ranging from mini-CDs
that contain entire encyclopedias of information to giant space telescopes that can send
photographs of distant stars back to Earth. Of all the new technological; wonders, personal
computers have probably had the greatest influence on the daily lives of average people.
Through computers, we can now talk to people in any country, research any topic, work, shop,
bank and entertain ourselves. Personal computers have especially revolutionized communication
and business practices in the past twenty years.

 The first two sentences introduce the general topic of technology. The mini-CDs
and giant telescope are mentioned to attract the reader’s interest.

 The next two sentences narrow the general topic of technology to the specific
topic of personal computers. The details keep the reader interested without
revealing the essay contents.

The final sentence is the thesis statement. It names the two subtopics or specific areas changed
by personal computers: communication and business.

Chapter 2

Paragraph Patterns

2.1 Descriptive Writing

Introduction
To describe something – a person, a place, an object – is to capture it in words so that others can
see it in their mind’s eye. To describe is to paint a picture with words. Description is not what
you saw, but what readers need to see in order to imagine the scene, person, object etc. therefore,
description requires you to record a series of detailed observations.

Why is description important?

Description adds an important dimension to our lives because it moves our emotions and
expands our experience. When we read descriptions of beautiful places and scenes, we are
uplifted. Descriptions can also give us a fresh appreciation for the familiar place. For example, a
description of Lake Malawi can help someone who has visited the lake on several occasions to
rediscover its beauty.

Capturing an event through descriptive writing involves paying close attention to details using all
your five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.

It is through senses that human beings experience the physical world around them, and it is
through senses that the world is most vividly described.

Selecting Details

When you write description, you will have many decisions to make about details to include.

1. Focus your Description with Dominant Impression

Because you cannot describe everything about your subject in a single essay, you should
settle on one dominant impression and describe it.

2. Determine your need for objective and Subjective Description

Your writing purpose may lead you to use observable and factual details expressed in
unemotional language to create an objective description.
When your writing purpose leads you to convey feelings about what you are describing
or create certain feelings in the reader, use more expressive language. This is subjective
description.

Examples

1
An octopus appears to be just a huge head with eight long, fearful arms. Its head is soft and
rubberlike. Its eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Its mouth is on the
underside of its body and has powerful jaws shaped like a beak. The long arms, or tentacles,
have double rows of suckers. These can fasten onto objects with such suction that they cannot
be pulled off.

The liver is the largest organ in the body. It weighs a little more than three pounds in an adult. It
is wedge-shaped and is situated under the diaphragm, mostly on the left side of the body, where
it is protected by the lower ribs. Somewhat like an intricate chemical factory, the liver takes the
particles of glucose (which come from digested starches and sugars) and changes them into
another kind of carbohydrate called glycogen, which it then stores. When the body needs sugar,
the liver turns the glycogen into glucose again and sends it to the body tissues through the
bloodstream.

Activity

1. What sort of descriptions are these?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What sensory details are used in paragraph 2
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Describing graphs and charts
In many subject areas you will need to include charts and diagrams, you will also need to refer to
statics and data. In such a case, you do not simply add the visual text, but include some sort of
comment.

 Few words to locate the visual

 Statistics that draws attention to important features of the visuals

 Some sort of comment or discussion of the visual

The function of a line graph is to describe a TREND pictorially. You therefore should try and
describe the trend in it. If there are many lines in the graph(s), then just generally describe the
trend. If there is only one or two, then use more detail. So, describe the movement of the line(s)
of the graph giving numerical detail at the important points of the line.

To describe the movement, there is some language which will always be useful. Below is a list of
language you can use. Check with your dictionary words that you don't understand and practice
using the words/phrases so you use them in the right way. As you will see, there are a number of
words which are similar in meaning. This means that you will be able to use a variety of
vocabulary which gives a good impression to the examiner who will read and mark your writing.
The words below are particularly useful for line graphs but they can also be used where
appropriate to describe the other types of graph.

Expressing the Movement of a Line

Verbs Nouns
Go up to
Grow (to)
Climb (to) a rise
Boom an increase
Reduce (to)
growth
a climb
Level out a boom
No change (reach) a peak (at)
Remain stable (at)
Remain steady (at) a fall (of)
Stay (at) a decline (of)
Stay constant (at) a decrease (of)
Maintain the same level a dip (of)
a drop (of)
ADJECTIVES
a reduction (of)
Dramatic A slump
Sharp
Huge a leveling out
Enormous no change
Steep
Substantial
Considerable ADVERBS
Significant
Marked dramatically
Moderate sharply
Slight hugely
Small enormously
Minimal steeply
substantially
Describing the Speed of a Change.

Adjectives adverbs
Rapid Rapidly
Quick quickly
Swift Swiftly
Sudden suddenly
Swift steadily
Sudden gradually
Steady Slowly
Gradual
Slow

Example 1

(Refer to figures below)

Figure 1 shows sales of mobile phones per month. As can

be seen, it covers the years 1998 to 2001 and shows that
the sales of mobile phones declined steadily in 1998, then
remained steady from May until the end of the year. The
sales rose more and more steeply, throughout 1999, with
a steep increase at the end of the year, and reached a peak
of 6,200 in February 2000. A sharp fall followed but
sales levelled off at about 5,300 per month in April,
fluctuated slightly through the year, and are now
increasing again. The figures seem to indicate that we
 have recovered from the problems in mid-2000 and are
on target to improve on our February 2000 peak by the
end of 2002.

Fig 1

Example 2
Fig 2: Widening gap

About 70 percent of the world's population lives in the less developed countries. What is more
noteworthy about this situation is that the rate of economic growth of the developed countries
exceeds the rate of economic growth of the underdeveloped countries, creating an ever-widening
gap between the richest and poorest nations, as can be seen from the graph in Figure 2.
Especially alarming in this regard is the fact that during the decade 1960-1970 agricultural output
in the underdeveloped countries increased at an average annual rate of 2.7 percent per year while
the population of these countries increased at an annual average rate of 2.8 percent (United
Nations 1973), creating an absolute deterioration in their living standards.

(From: Marvin Harris, Culture, people, nature: An introduction to general anthropology. Harper,
1975)

__________________________________________________________________

Study the graph below. Write a brief paragraph in describing the data shown in the graph.
Fig 3: show International student on pre-sessional course at South Field University.

Fig 4
QUESTIONS

1. What is the line graph about?

_________________________________________________________________

2. What is the busiest time of day at the store?

__________________________________________________________________

3. At what time does business start to slow down?

__________________________________________________________________

4. How many people are in the store when it opens?

__________________________________________________________________

5. about how many people are in the store at 2:30 pm?

_________________________________________________________________

6. What was the greatest number of people in the store?

_________________________________________________________________

7. What was the least number of people in the store?

__________________________________________________________________

Describe the movement of the line in the graph using the language above

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_-
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Fig 5

Write seven questions about the graph

1.____________________________________________________________
2.____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________

7. ____________________________________________________________

Describe the movement of the line in the graph using the language above

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

(Source: http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/graphs/line.html)

Description – Description and Coherence

An effective description should be organized so that the details build on each other
naturally and logically.
Your subject will determine the way in which you organize your details. Three methods
of organization that work especially well in descriptive writing are spatial order,
chronological order, and order of importance.

Spatial order
 Is a logical way to link descriptive details to each other especially when you are
describing an object or a place. By arranging sentences according to the position of
objects you create a continuity of movement. Using spatial transition such as these make
your description coherent:

Above beneath horizontally opposite There

Ahead down inside outside Under

Around Far near over Vertically

Below Here next parallel Within

The following description is organized spatially

On November 27, 1922, when archaeologist Howard Carter unsealed the door to the ancient
tomb of King Tut, he stared in amazement at the fantastic objects heaped all around him. On his
left lay wrecks of at least four golden chariots. Against the wall on his right sat a gorgeous chest
brightly painted with hunting and battle scenes. Across from him was a gilded throne with cat-
shaped legs, arms like winged serpents, and a back showing King Tut and his queen. Behind the
throne rose a tall couch decorated with animal faces that were half hippopotamus and half
crocodile. The couch was loaded with more treasures. To the right of the couch, two life-sized
statues faced each other like guards. They were black, wore gold skirts and sandals, and had
cobras carved on their foreheads. Between them was a second sealed doorway. Carter’s heart
beat loudly. Would the mummy of King Tut lie beyond it?

 The overall impression given by the topic sentence is that the tomb’s many objects were
amazing. List three specific details that support this impression.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
  Note the importance of the words that indicate richness and unusual decoration in helping
the reader visualize the scene. List as many of these words as you can.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Chronological order

Second way of ordering the details in a description is by arranging them in order of time. When
you organize ideas chronologically, use transition such as the following to make your writing
coherent:

After finally Now

Again First Occasionally

Already formerly Soon

At that time meanwhile Then

Before Next When

Order of importance

A third way of ordering the details in a description is by arranging them in order of importance.
You may begin with the least important or list interesting details and lead up to the most
important ones, or you may describe the most important details first. Use the following transition
to make your paragraph coherent.

At first Last Most of all

First Latter Primarily
Former Most important Second
2.2 Persuasive Writing and Critical Thinking

Introduction

In this section you will learn how to write a persuasive essay. Persuasive paragraphs are designed
to convince readers to accept an idea, adopt a solution, change their opinions, or take action. In
this section, you will also find out that argument paragraphs require clearly stated topic
sentences. The section will further show that this can be achieved by using critical thinking.

Objectives:

By the end of this section you should able to:

 Distinguish between facts and opinion

 State opinion and provide reasons to support than opinion

 Think critically in analyzing arguments

 Identify the structure and feature of persuasive writing

 Understand the structure and feature of persuasive writing

 Produce a persuasive essay that draws on specific details to support claims, embedding
quotations, statistics, or observations in a body paragraph

2.2.1 Critical thinking

What is critical and analytical thinking?

Critical analytical thinking is a key part of university study. Many first year students receive
comments such as 'not analytical enough' on their early assignments. You will find that you
develop your critical and analytical skills as you go through university. In brief, this means
looking very closely at the detail and not taking what you read or hear for granted. Your tutors
will expect you to:

 Evaluate how far materials are appropriate, and up-to-date.

 Evaluate how far the evidence or examples used in materials really proves the point that
the author claims.
 To weigh up opinions, arguments or solutions against appropriate criteria.
 To think a line of reasoning through to its logical conclusion.
 Check for hidden bias or hidden assumptions.
 Check whether the evidence and argument really support the conclusions.

You will need to do this for materials that you read. For example, when you cite a source of
evidence for your own arguments, you will need to be sure that the evidence really does support
your point, and is accurate and reliable. You are expected to be very critical of your sources,
using evidence that has been well researched rather than just your own opinion or what your
friends think.

Identifying the main line of reasoning in what you read or write

 What is the main argument or line of reasoning?

 Is the line of reasoning clear from the text?

Critical evaluation of line of reasoning for what you read or write

 Note any statements from the text which strengthen its line of reasoning or prove the
argument.
 What statements, if any, undermine the argument?
 Are points made in the best logical order?

Identifying hidden agendas in your sources and in your own writing

 What hidden agendas might the writer have that might make you question the contents or
conclusions of the passage? Consider what they might hope to gain through writing this
piece.
  What information might be missing that could paint a different picture?

Evaluating evidence in the text

 What kinds of evidence or examples does the writer use? How reliable and useful is this
evidence?
 Does it really support the argument? Is the evidence strong enough?
 Is the data up-to-date?
 Does the text use reliable sources? What are these? What makes you think they are or are
not reliable?

Looking for bias

 Do you think there may be any bias in the text? Give reasons and examples.
 Comment on any statistics used. Are these likely to give a true and full picture?
 Does their writing reflect a political viewpoint?
 Who might disagree with the writer?

Identifying the writer's conclusions

 Does the evidence support the writer's conclusions?

 Does the line of reasoning lead you to make the same conclusions?

Critical skills when writing

 Apply the same rigour to your own writing as you do when you analyse source materials.
 Work out early on what your conclusion is and write this down where you can see it
easily. Use this as a guide for what to read, what experiments to run, what examples to
use.
 Before you begin your main piece of writing for an assignment, write your conclusion on
a piece of paper and stick this at the top of the computer. Keep referring back to this to
 ensure that all of your writing leads towards this conclusion. The outline plan for your
writing should map out how each paragraph leads your reader towards the conclusion.
 Ensure that your conclusion can be supported by the evidence. If you cannot find the
evidence to support your position, you may need to change your conclusion.

Summary

Critical Thinking: refers to analyzing and evaluating the information presented to you or that
you plan to present to others in defense of an opinion.

Persuasive Writing

The purpose of persuasive writing is to assert an opinion which you are going to defend and to
offer supporting evidence (data) in order to convince the reader to agree with you. In the process,
you deal with opposing views, thus convincing him/her of the superiority of your argument.
Additionally, a good writer may present emotional as well as rational appeal. All of your
reasoning should lead to a logical conclusion. If your subject matter warrants a change, you will
offer a solution to the status quo in a proposal.

Persuasive essays should include documentation which will require research. By investigating
your topic and including supporting comments from authorities, you give credibility to your
argument .Make sure that you come up with a clear statement of what you believe in or assert.

Writing the persuasive/argumentative essay

Choosing a topic

To begin an argumentative/persuasive essay, you must have an opinion you want others to share
or make a claim about an issue.

Possible topics can be:

 The government should abolish farm input subsidy programme because it is expensive.

 Should the death penalty be abolished?

Research

To be valid, an opinion or point of view must be supported by facts and information. Once you
know what you will write about you will need to do research on the topic. You can research
through interviewing people, reading journal articles, books, internet etc.

Thesis Statement

The thesis/hypothesis is your statement of purpose. The thesis//hypothesis should be one

sentence in length. This is the foundation of your essay and it will serve to guide you in writing
the entire paper. Don't begin to write your essay until you have a clear thesis/hypothesis.

Outline

Prepare an outline arranging the explanations in the best order for the desired effect. The purpose
of an outline is to make each idea serves to clarify and strengthen the thesis/hypothesis. Use the
sample outline by inserting your specific information into the outline structure.

Proofread. The computer can check spelling errors easily, but be aware that sometimes a word
is correctly spelled but used incorrectly in a particular sentence. It is still important to proofread
after the spell check.

Key terms:

Proposition

Claim

Evidence

A proposition is a statement of thought, idea, or point of view that you want others to accept. It
is a reasoned, logical way of asserting the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion.

Claim: Writers opinion about an issue, an assertion of the truth about something

Evidence: by evidence we mean all verifiable information a writer might use as support for an
argument. This includes facts, observations, examples, cases, testimony, experimental findings,
survey, statistics… However, each of these has pro and cons and should be viewed in terms of
rhetorical situation.
Argumentation Purposes

 To reinforce an existing view and create sentiments to maintain status quo

 To call readers to action

 To change people’s minds

 To lessen an objection

 To earn support for position

 To convince other people to accept the validity of your position.

 To defend your position, even if others cannot be convinced to agree

 To question or refute a position you believe to be misguided, untrue, or dangerous

without necessarily offering alternative

To achieve these purposes, argumentation has formal structure which evolves according to a
writer’s interpretation and presentation of evidence.

Features of an Argumentative / Persuasive Paragraph

Claim

The claim is usually placed at the beginning of the paragraph, though some paragraphs are

arranged with the main point coming last. Remember that a claim is a contention you will
support.

Proposition

 Is a view point that you will create, defend or destroy

  It should be worded as a declarative sentence that unambiguously express your
position

 Proposition can be the main point of your position

 It can be single supportive element

 It can also be an opposing proposition that you will destroy.

Support

In order to support the claim, you must use supporting

details or evidence. Evidence can be classified as qualitative

and quantitative data.

Analysis

Your supporting details will usually require an analysis

Commentary, which often discusses the relevance or

Importance of the data that you collected.

Attributes of Good Proposition

 Debatable

 Provable

Three Types of Proposition

1. Proposition of fact: your argument is aimed at getting your audience accept the situation
as being true or false.

2. Proposition of Value: ask audience to make evaluative judgment whether something

morally good or bad
 3. Proposition of Policy: Advocacy - course of action

Finding an issue and establishing a claim

 An argumentative essay gives evidence to support a claim about an issue

 An issue is a concern or a problem about which people disagree

 A claim is a writers opinion about the issue

 If you argue that tax on beer should be increased, your issue is beer tax, and your
claim is that tax should be increased.

Your issue and claim must be debatable, must be controversial rather than statement of fact or
personal preference.

For example, you cannot argue that cigarettes are harmful (medical science has already proven
this)

You cannot argue that women look more beautiful without makeup (the matter is of personal
preference)

Elements of an argumentative essay

 Facts
Facts are statements of what is. They should appeal to readers mind not emotions.
- Your facts must be clear to the reader
- Avoid the vague “everyone knows that…”
- “it is common knowledge”
- “They all say…”
 Referring to an authority
An authority is an expert, someone who can be relied on to give unbiased facts and
information.

 Examples
 Example should be clearly related the argument and should be typical enough to support
your general statement (Thesis)

 Predicting the consequence

Helps the reader to visualize what will occur if something does not happen. To convince
your readers that college education should be free to all qualified students, you might
want to say, “If bright but economically deprived students cannot attend college because
they cannot afford it, our society will be robbed of their talent.”

 Answering the opposition (critics)

Every controversial issue has two sides. Once you can support your position with
research, you need to explore what others think Look at the reasons for your opinion.
What objections would others have for your reasons?

Example: Paragraph and Plan

Passengers should refuse to ride in any vehicle driven by someone who has been drinking.
First and most important, such refusal could save lives. The National Council of Alcoholism
reports that driving causes 25, 000 deaths and 50 percent of all traffic accidents a year. Not
only the drivers but the passengers who agree to travel with them are responsible. Second
riders might tell themselves that some people drive well even after few drinks, but this is just
not true. Dr. Burton Belloc of the Local Alcoholism Treatment Center explains that even one
drink can lengthen the reflex time and even weaken the judgement needed for safe driving.
Other riders might feel foolish to ruin a social occasion or inconvenience themselves or
others by speaking up, but risking their lives is even more foolish. Finally, by refusing to ride
with a drinker, one passenger could influence other passengers or a driver. Marie Furillo is an
example. When three friends who had obviously been drinking offered her a ride home from
school recently, she refused, despite the driver’s teasing. Hearing Maries refusal, two of her
friends got out of the car. Until laws are changed and a vast re-education takes places, the
blood shed on American highways will probably continue. But there is one thing people can
do: They can refuse to risk their lives for sake of party.
 (Adapted from EVERGREEN A Guide to Writing, FourthEdition).

Activity

 The first reason in the argument predicts the consequence. What is the consequence it
predicts?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 The writer also supports this reason with facts. Mention some of the facts.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 The second reason in the argument is really an answer to the opposition. That is, the
writer anticipates the critics. What is the point that is being answered?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 The writer supports this reason by referring to an authority. Who is the authority and
what does this person say?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 Persuasive paragraphs can begin with most important reason and then continue with less
important ones, or they can begin with least important for last. This paragraph begins
with what author considers most important. What is it that can be considered as the most
important here?
Structuring a persuasive essay

1. Introductory paragraph

You will need an introduction of one or two paragraphs. The introduction should start with an
attention grabber that introduces your topic. It can be:

 Rhetorical question
 Powerful piece of information
 An anecdote or story
 A call to action
 A background/ explanation of the problem

Thesis Statement

A thesis is a point of your essay, the idea you wish to explain and defend. Write one or three
sentences that contextualize the problem and give the basic fact. Your thesis will be the plan for
solving that problem (proposed change or plan of action for solution you are arguing for) Try to
using “should,” “must,” or “needs” to in your plan of action to indicate argument.

There are many ways to write a good thesis sentence, but in general, thesis contains three
elements: qualification, a general reason why your thesis is valid, and exact position you are
presenting.

II. The main body

The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph
develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraph of an essay contains the main ideas and
arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in
order to connect ideas. The purpose of the essay must be clear and the reader must follow its
development

III. The conclusion

The conclusion includes the writer’s final points

  It should recall the issues raised.

2.3 Writing a process analysis

A process essay describes a series of steps or events.

There are two basic types of process paragraph: A directional (how to paragraph) and an
informational (the explanation paragraph)

The ‘how to’ paragraph gives the reader directions on how he or she can do something: how
s/he can get to the bus station, how to decorate a room. In other words, the reader should be able
to do something after he or she has read the paragraph.

The explanation paragraph, on the other hand, tells the reader how particular event occurred or
how something works, for example how a photocopier works or how trees reproduce. After
reading an explanation paragraph, the reader is not expected to do anything, just understand how
it happened or works.

There are several major topic types:

1. Scientific or natural

This style is often used in textbooks. The goal is to teach us about a process in the world that
may be invisible to us. It is always organized chronologically.

 How global warning leads to acidification

 How photosynthesis work

2. Historic

Its goal is to explain how something happened – how social change occurred, how a law was
passed. It is often chronological but organized in order of importance.

 How women’s roles in Malawi have changed since the 1994.

 How slave trade damaged Africa.

 3. Advisory

This style is often seen in “self- help” books.

 How to be a supportive parent

 How to study

 How to write a budget

Structure of Paragraph explaining a process.

The introduction of your process analysis can include a thesis that mentions the process you will
explain. It can also note the importance of understanding the process.

1. Introductory Paragraph
a. Set up the background for the process and why you are describing it
b. Thesis statement: A statement that describes what you are trying to explain, show,
prove or argue through describing the process. Do you want to explain how a process
works? Or do you want to critique a process and propose an alternative?

2. Body paragraph

a. Develop the process of the event using time order or order of importance. The topic
sentence should clarify the type of order and categories or major stages of the process

b. Explain each step in active or passive voice

c. Use transitions within and between paragraphs to emphasize switching to next step
d. Provide concrete details and descriptions –define terms when necessary, especially if
your process involves parts or tools
e. Add commentary and analysis about steps, details, and descriptions to help develop
the expository purpose/ thesis statement
 3. Conclusion
Sum up and re-emphasize the thesis: the purpose of describing this process in the first
place.

__________________________________________________________________

Example: Describing a process

The diagram shows how electricity is generated by hydroelectric dam, see how the process has
been described in the model answer.

Model Answer

The diagram above illustrates the basic principles of hydroelectric power. The process requires
the construction of a large dam connected to a powerhouse. The dam creates a large reservoir
and the powerhouse is where the electricity is generated.
First of all, water trapped in the reservoir behind the dam is forced through an intake. It then
flows into a narrow chamber called a penstock, where the resulting high pressure turns a
turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator in the powerhouse above, and this is where the
movement of the turbine is converted into electricity. The resulting electricity leaves the
powerhouse via cables that carry it over long distances to where it can be used.

It is interesting to note that a hydroelectric dam creates no harmful byproducts and relies entirely
on natural forces to produce electricity. After the turbine stage, water flows out through a second
channel and into a river. The process is renewable, thanks to the water cycle in nature.

Tips when Writing a Process Paragraph

1. Choose a point of view and be consistent.

2. Follow strict chronological (time) order, but try to make it as interesting as possible
3. If you are describing how to do something, indicate any special needs before you describe
step one
4. Be sure you complete the process (don't leave out any steps)
5. Try to anticipate any difficulties and tell the reader what might be done to make the job more
pleasant
6. Tell the reader what to do if something goes wrong
7. Define any unfamiliar terms

Sample paragraphs

a. ‘How to’ Paragraph

The Essay Writing Process

Writing is a process that allows ideas to be expressed on paper. Writing an essay can be a task
that requires some time to complete, but if a writer allows preparation time, the process can be
quite simple. Several steps are involved in the process of writing. Five basic steps will allow a
writer to achieve the best possible outcome when trying to develop an essay.

First, the writer must choose a topic or subject. If the topic is assigned, this step is not
necessary. But if the writer must choose, he or she can incorporate two questions into the
selection process. What is my purpose for developing the essay? Who is my audience? When
the answer is clear, and the topic has been chosen, it is time to formulate the thesis statement

Step two of the writing process is drafting a thesis statement which will make clear of the
author’s position on the topic. The thesis statement is the central idea that the rest of the essay
will support. It is the main point of the paper and usually with on complete sentence. In thesis
statement the writer explains, defends, or proves the chosen topic. Usually the topic sentence
also identifies the writer’s method of essay development. Examples of essay development are:
cause and effect, definition, process analysis, classification, analysis, persuasion or argument,
description, and once this is declared, the writer is ready for the next step, organizing the ideas to
support the thesis.

Step three, organizing ideas, can be accomplished in a variety of ways. The writer can free-
write, that is, begin writing whatever thoughts pops into his or her head, and organize them later.
Writer can also organize ideas in prearranged fashion. If a writer chooses to brainstorm, he or
she will write all his or her ideas in no particular order. Clustering, sometimes called mapping, is
similar to brainstorming; however, it is a more organized way to write ideas because a diagram is
constructed to illustrate how one idea branches of from another. Clustering can also be utilized as
a flowchart.

Finally, a writer may choose to include an outline, which will arrange ideas in a logical order,
including the thesis statement, main ideas, and supporting points. Whatever way a writer chooses
to organize his or her ideas, once ideas are structured, the writer is ready for step four, writing
the rough draft.

b. Explanation paragraph

The Photocopier

Static electricity enables a photocopier to produce almost instant copies of documents. At the
heart of the machine is a metal drum which is given a negative charge at the beginning of the
copying cycle. The electric charge disappears where light strikes the metal surface, so only dark
parts of the image remain charged. Positively charged particles of the toner powder are then
applied to the drum. The charged parts of the drum attract dark powder, which is then
transferred to a piece of paper. A heater seals the powder to the paper, and a warm copy of the
document emerges from the copier. A colour copier works in the same basic way, but scans the
document with blue, green and red filters. It then transfers toner to the paper in three layers
coloured yellow, magenta and cyan. The three colours overlap to give full colour picture.

Transitions to show addition of another point

Again but also In addition or

Also Besides Last Then too

And Equally important finally thirdly

And then Next moreover First

Activity

Here are topic sentences for two process paragraphs. Make a plan for each paragraph listing in
proper time sequence all steps that would be necessary to complete the process.

1. I learned_____________________ in stages over a long period of time.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 2. Voter registration was a very complicated process this year.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2.4 Classification paragraphs

Introduction

Classification as a method of development is very useful when a topic involves a large body of
information. This chapter will explain the thinking behind the use of classification in your
writing and will give you opportunity to explore this method of development.

Objectives

 Defining classification

 Find a basis of classification

 Making classification complete

 Using a step –by – step approach to create classification

What is classification?

Every day we are helped by systems that take large amount of information into groups and
categories so that we can manage the information. Librarians classify books and periodicals
according to a specific system, in biology plants and animals are classified into groups and
subgroups.

The National Statistical Office collects a variety of data about people living in Malawi. One way
to classify this data is by age – number of people under eighteen, between eighteen and fifty-five
and over fifty-five. Other ways of dividing the population are by geographic location,
occupation, family size, level of education and so on.

Whether you classify rocks by their origin for a science course or children by their stages of
growth for a psychology course, you will have organized groups into smaller, more manageable
units that can be explained to your reader.

To classify is to gather into types, kinds, or categories according to a single basis of division.

Topic Sentence

Here is the topic sentence for a classification paragraph

Traditional musical instruments can be classified as stringed, wind and percussion instrument
according to how they produce sound.

 The writer begins a classification paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly states what
will be classified.

 What will be classified_________________________________________________

 Into how many categories will they be divided? What are the categories?

______________________________________________________________________

Example
Here is the entire paragraph

Traditional musical instruments can be classified as stringed, wind and percussion instruments
according to how they produce sound. Stringed instruments produce music through the vibration
of taut strings that are plucked, strummed, or bowed. The violin and banjo, and the guitar are
examples of stringed instruments. Wind instruments are sounded by wind, usually by player’s
breath; this category includes the clarinet, the tuba, the trumpet, and so on. Rather than being
bowed or blown, percussion instruments make sounds when they are struck. Obvious examples
of percussion instrument are drums, gongs, and cymbals. Surprisingly, the piano is also
considered as a percussion instrument because, when the player touches a key, a small hammer
inside the piano strikes a string.

 On what basis does the writer classify musical instruments?

_______________________________________________________________________

 What information does the writer provide about the first type, stringed instrument?

_______________________________________________________________________

 Giving occasional examples is also helpful in a classification. What examples does the
writer give of stringed instrument?
_______________________________________________________________________

 What information does the writer provide about the second type, wind instruments?

_______________________________________________________________________

 What examples does the writer give of a wind instrument?

_______________________________________________________________________

Note that the body of the paragraph discusses all three types of instruments mentioned in
the topic sentence and does not add new ones.
 This classification paragraph sticks to single method of classifying how instruments
produce sound

Example

Listed below are three groups of people or things. Decide on single basis of classification for
each group. Write a topic sentence for each of your classification.

Group Basis of Classification Categories

Lecturers Methods of instruction
 Lecture

 Class discussions

 Some use both

Living things



Religion
 .

 .

Rocks
 .

 .

Topic sentence: Lecturers at Chancellor College can be classified according to their methods of
instructions: those who lecture, those who encourage class discussion and those who do both.

Activity
Now write a classification topic sentence for each of the following.

1. Living things
2. Religion
3. Rocks

Activity

On a separate sheet of paper, make a plan for one of the classifications in the activity above. Be
sure that you have listed all categories that naturally evolve from your basis of classification;
remember, every person or thing in large group should fit into one of these categories. Then
write a brief description of each of the categories in your classification, perhaps including an
example of each.

The Process of Writing a classification paragraph

Refer to this check list as you write a classification paragraph

1.____ Narrow the topic in light of your audience and purpose. Think in terms of a group of
people or things that can be classified into types of categories.

2. ___ Decide on a single basis of classification. This basis will depend on what information you
wish to give your audience.

3. ____ Compose a topic sentence that clearly shows what you are dividing into categories or
types. If you wish, your topic sentence can state the basis on which you are making classification
and the types that will be discussed in the paragraph.

4. ___ List the categories into which groups is being classified. Be sure that your categories
cover all possibilities. Do not add any new categories that are not logically part of your original
basis of classification.

5.___ Free-write or brainstorm for information, details, and examples for each of the categories.

6.____ Select the best details and examples and drop those that are not relevant to classification.
7.___ Make a plan for your paragraph, numbering the categories in order in which you will
present them.

8.___ Write a draft of your classification paragraph, using transitional expression wherever they
might be helpful.

9. ___ Revise as necessary, checking for support, unity, logic and coherence.

10.___ Proof read for errors in grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, spelling and
mechanics.

2.5 Comparisons and contrasts

Introduction

Throughout your academic career you will be asked to write papers in which you compare and
contrast two things, two texts, two theories, two scientific process, and so on. To contrast two
persons, places, or things is to examine the ways in which they are different. To compare them is
to examine the ways in which they are similar.

You can compare:

 Birds and aeroplanes

 Body fluids
 Science laboratories
 Science programmes

When you compare items you point similarities, and when you contrast you point out their
differences. The purpose of comparing and contrasting is to understand each of the two things
more clearly and, at times, to make judgements about them.

Activity

Suppose you want to buy a personal computer from the ones shown in the table below. To reach
a decision about the model you want to buy, you weigh the key features of each computer. Pay
attention to the comparisons and contrasts.
What factors are you going to consider in your comparison and contrast in order to make a good
choice?

Price Processor Speed Screen Size Hard Disk RAM

Evesham Axis 1.33 SK £1,174 1.33 GHz 17" 40 GB 256 MB

Armani R850 P4. £2,467 1.7 GHz 19" 40 GB 256 MB

Mesh Elite 1.7GT Pro £1,938 1.7 GHz 19" 57 GB 256 MB

ElonexWebRider Pro £1,174 1.2 GHz 17" 38.1 GB 128 MB

Three personal computers, the Evesham Axis 1.33 SK, the Armani R850 P4 and the Mesh Elite
1.7 GT Pro, were compared with respect to the following factors: price, processor speed and
size of hard disk. The Evesham Axis, which costs £1,174, is by far the cheapest of the three, the
Armani and the Mesh Elite costing £2,467 and £1,938 respectively. The Evesham Axis has the
same hard disk size as the Armani, 40 MB, whereas the Mesh Elite is the largest at 57 GB.
Regarding the processor speed, the Armani and the Mesh Elite are similar - the processor
speed, at 1.7 GHz, being 0.37 GHz faster than the Evesham Axis.

Note : Comparison and contrast helps the reader understand one person, place, or thing (item) in
terms of another.

Organizing Comparisons and Contrasts

Your thesis for comparison – contrast essay can state the subjects you are considering and
whether you are comparing; contrasting, or doing both. Below are three possible thesis
statements composed this way:
Thesis statement indicating subjects will be compared

People think that adolescence is more difficult for females than it is for males but teenage
males suffer many of the same anxieties that females do.

Thesis indicating that subjects will be contrasted

Attending school in South Africa for two years gave me a firsthand look at the most important
differences in our educational system.

Framework for a ‘compare and contrast’ essay

Introduction:

Main themes:
Areas to be compared and A B
contrasted

Similarities
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Differences
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Significance of similarities or differences. (How you decide whether something was
significant?)

Conclusion. (Draw the leader’s attention to the main points)

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity:

Below is a plan for contrast paragraph. The points of contrast in the second column do not
follow the same order as points in the first column. In addition, one detail is missing. First match
numbers in the second column to match those in the first. Then fill the missing detail.

Shopping at a supermarket Shopping at a local grocery

A B

1. Carries all brands - Personal service

2. Lower prices - Closed on Sundays
3. Open seven days a week - Prices often higher
4. Little personal service -
5. No credit - Credit available for steady
customers

Use the details above to write a contrast essay

Use either of these two patterns when writing a contrast or comparison paragraph:

1. Present all information about A and the provide parallel information about B:
First all A:
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Then all B:
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3

 This pattern is good for paragraph and short composition. The reader can easily
remember what was said about A by the time he or she gets to B
 2. Move back and forth between A and B. Present a point about A and then go to the
parallel point B. Then move to the next point and do the same.

First A, point 1 then B, point 1

First A, point 2 then B, point 2
First A, point 3 then B, point 3

 This pattern is the best for longer papers, where it might be hard for the reader to
remember what the writer said about A by the time he gets to B. By going back and forth,
the writer makes it easier for the reader to keep the contrast or comparison in mind.

Activity: Use the frame work for compare and contrast essay to compare the following:

 Bottled water versus tap water

 Two types of music

 Two systems of government

Activity

The bar chart below shows the percentage participation of men in senior development in
three companies between 1980 and the year 2010. Summarise the information by selecting
and report in the main features, and make comparisons where relevant.
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Model answer:

The bar chart shows the percentage of men in senior development position in three companies
from 1980 to 2010.

While more men were in senior positions at Apple than other two companies in 1980 at 15%, the
trend was fairly erratic with a 2% drop to 13% in 1985, followed by a rise of 1% five years later.
In 1995, men held 7% more top development jobs than in 1990. After a slight drop back to 19%
in 2000, by 2010 25% of top posts were filled by men.

By contrast, at IBM men fared much better. In 1980, 2% of senior posts were occupied by men
with no change five years on. By 1990, the figure had increased to 13%, doubling to 26 per cent
in 1995. Five years afterwards, there was a 6% increase in male senior development jobs with a
near twofold jump in 2010 to stand at 63%, the highest for the three companies.

The situation was less remarkable at Microsoft than the other two firms except for the year 2010.
In 1980, the percentage of senior posts held by men was 8% climbing at the rate of 2% in each
subsequent period until 2000, after which it leapt to 45%. From the data, it is clear that men
dominated senior posts at IBM by 2010

2.6 Writing Definitions

Introduction

In this section, you will learn how to write definition essays. To define is to explain clearly what
a word or term means. As you write, you will sometimes find it necessary to explain words or
terms that you suspect your readers may not know.

In this section you will learn to write one –sentence definition and the whole paragraph
definition. The skill of defining clearly will be useful in your course.
There are many ways to define a word or a term. Three basic ones are definition by:

 Definition Synonym

 Definition by class –formal definition

 Definition by negation

When you write academic essays or reports you will often need to define key words and
concepts. You are most likely to write definitions when you introduce the word or concept. In
your writing you will probably need to write both formal definitions and extended definitions.

A formal definition is a short, complete definition of a concrete word or concept. Here is an

example of a formal definition:

Market capitalization is the value of a company calculated by multiplying the number of its
issued shares by their market price. (Oxford Dictionary of Business English)

We normally write formal definitions like this:

Term Verb Class Details/Features

Market Is The value of a Calculated by multiplying the number of its

capitalization company issued shares by their market value.

Change Is Type of process Which involves passing from on state or

 phase to another

Here is another way of writing a formal definition:

Class Details/Features Verb Term

The value of calculated by multiplying the number of is called market

a company its issued shares by their market price capitalization

You will sometimes find that the concept you wish to define is so complex or abstract that it is
impossible to define it satisfactorily in a simple sentence. In these cases, you will need to write a
detailed extended definition. There are a number of techniques that you can use when planning and
drafting a paragraph of extended definition. These are some of the techniques you can use to
support your definition:

identify distinguishing characteristics give examples

 Extended Definition

provide extra facts/information say what cannot be included in this definition

Below is an extract from the World Bank’s definition of corruption1. This is an example of
an extended definition. As you read it, look for the techniques used to write and extended
definition.

The term corruption covers a broad range of human actions. To understand its effect on an
economy or a political system, it helps to unbundle the term by identifying specific types of
activities or transactions that might fall within it. In considering its strategy the Bank
sought a usable definition of corruption and then developed taxonomy of the different
forms corruption could take consistent with that definition. We settled on a straightforward
definition—the abuse of public office for private gain. Public office is abused for private
gain when an official accepts, solicits, or extorts a bribe. It is also abused when private
agents actively offer bribes to circumvent public policies and processes for competitive
advantage and profit. Public office can also be abused for personal benefit even if no
bribery occurs, through patronage and nepotism, the theft of state assets, or the diversion of
state revenues. This definition is both simple and sufficiently broad to cover most of the
corruption that the Bank encounters, and it is widely used in the literature. Bribery occurs
in the private sector, but bribery in the public sector, offered or extracted, should be the
Bank’s main concern, since the Bank lends primarily to governments and supports
government policies, programs, and projects.

Note:
1
The key to writing a good extended definition is to choose the sources of definition to help
readers understand the term being defined. Use this checklist to select the kinds of discussion to
include in your extended definitions.

Description Does anything related to the term being

defined need to be described?

Process Is there some process (natural or social)

associated with the term

Historical background Is there some history, some key individuals

related to the term being defined?

Problem, solution Does the term being defined presents a

problem or solution. Does it affect or
excludes other people or things?

Additional definitions Do unfamiliar terms occurring in definitions

also need definition?

Examples Would examples contribute to the definition.

Definition by negation

A definition by negation means the writer first says what something is not, and then says what it
is.

Definition by negation is extremely helpful when we think that the reader has preconceived idea
about the word you wish to define.

Example:
 1. A good parent does not just feed and clothe a child but loves, accepts and supports that
child for who or she is.
2. Liberty does not mean having the right to do whatever you please but carries the
obligation to respect the rights of others
3. College is not just a place to have a good time but a place to grow intellectually and
emotionally.

Definition by negation is extremely helpful when we think that the reader has preconceived idea
about the word you wish to define.

Practice: Define the following words by class definition.

1. Adolescence
2. data
3. Religion
4. Science

Practice: Write a one-sentence definition by negation for each of the following terms.

1. Freedom of speech:
2. Humility:
3. Bravery:

2.7 Cause and Effect

Introduction

Cause and effect analysis is one of the most frequently used patterns in college writing. For
instance, you might be asked to explain the cause and effects of high population growth. Cause
and effect can also help us plan, make decisions, and implement important changes. For
example, by examining reasons of a poor grade on a test, a student can adjust his or her study
habits for the next exam.

 Cause and effect analyze why something happens

  Some effects are caused by multiple causes
 Some causes, in turn result in multiple effects

Types of Causes

 Main cause: the most important cause

 Immediate cause: closely precedes effects
 Contributory cause: less important
 Remote cause: less obvious cause, it involves something in the past

 Causal chain: an effect can be the cause to another effect, so on

 Root Cause : that if corrected would prevent recurrence of this and

Similar occurrence

Creating Causal Chain

Causal chains are important in helping the public to understand complex social problems and
help in improving communication about social issues.

Merely presenting a particular piece of data or list consequences does not help people understand
why situation exist, who or what is responsible for the condition, and how to change it.

Causal chain usually contains the following three parts:

1. Initial factor
2. Final consequence
3. Mediating factor (which provides the explanation that links the two).

Example:

1. As existing roadways become increasingly congested, (initial factor) the ability to easily
bike or walk to destination decrease (mediating factor) which leads to less physical
activity among children and adults (final consequence).
 2. Racial and ethnic minority are exposed to higher levels of indoor pollution such as
second-hand smoke (initial factor) because they live in substandard housing (mediating
factor) this result in more asthma attacks. (final consequence)

Cause and effect analysis

 Identify the likely cause of the problem

 Cause and effect diagram are also known as fishbone diagram because a complete
diagram looks like a fish bone
 Created in 1943 by Professor Ishikawa of Tokyo University.

Organizing cause –and –effect analysis

Your thesis for cause and effect can indicate the subject you will analyze. It can also note
whether you will discuss cause, effects or both.

Examples:

Thesis indicating the essay will analyze cause.

To solve the problem of teenage drug abuse, we must first understand what leads to teenagers
take drugs.

Thesis indicating that the essay will analyze effects

Not everyone realizes the devastating effects unemployment has on a person’s image.

Thesis indicating that the essay will analyze both cause and effects

The reasons donors are cutting aid to Malawi are understandable, but the effects of this action
will be devastating.

Writing a cause and effect paragraph

Regardless of the focus, both the cause and effect(s) will be mentioned in the paragraph.

Africa provides enough proof that HIV/AIDS affects economies. The disease takes the lives
of adults in their most productive years. To train new workers and take care of the sick ones
 can come at a high price. When tens of millions of working –age adults become sick and die,
economic output suffers. Across the African content, AIDS has cut deeply into productivity.
In Zambia and South Africa, income in households of AIDS sufferers has declined by 66 to
80 percent. The international Monetary Fund predicts that AIDS may reduce economic
growth by as much as 2 percent in Sub-Sahara Africa. The World Bank cautions that South
Africa’s economy could collapse in few generations if the AIDS crisis isn’t averted.

Paragraph analysis

1. What is the focus? ______________________________________

2. What effects have been mentioned? _________________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. What is the cause? ______________________________________

Chapter 3
Interpreting Essay Assignments.

3.1 Introduction

Whenever you are given a task in form of an assignment, you need to understand it and what is
required of you. Important information is conveyed in the way in which the assignment is
worded as well as instructions, assessment criteria and guidelines provided with the assignment.
One way that can help you understand your assignment is to take note of key words. The
question words that are used in assignments help you understand what the assignment is asking
you to do. Besides, the question words that are used in assignments tell you the kind of answers
you could give.
3.2 Terminology of Assessment Questions

Spend time to identify the key words of a question. Look at the verbs as these will indicate both
what your content of your answer should be and process and method you should adopt to provide
that information.

Before you start any piece of written work you should ask yourself the following questions

 What is the purpose

 Who is it for

 What are my aims

 Which form of writing will best accomplish these aims

 What structure will best suit the purpose aims of this piece of writing

The following verbs are frequently used by tutors in assessment questions:

Account for Give reason for, explain the cause of

Analyze Examine in very close detail: identify important points

and chief features.

Comment on Identify and write about the main issues, giving your
reactions based upon what you have read or heard in
lecturers.
Critically evaluate Weigh arguments for something, assessing the
strength of evidence on both sides. Use criteria guide
your assessment of which opinions, theories, models
or items are preferable.

Define Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show that
you understand why the definition may be
problematic.

Describe Give the main characteristics or features of

something, or outline the main events

Discuss Write about the most important aspects of (probability

including criticism): give arguments for and against;
consider the implications of.
Evaluate Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of
something, using evidence. There will probably cases
to be made both for and against.

Examine Put the subject under the ‘microscope’ looking at it in

detail.

Interpret Give the meaning and relevance of data or other

material.

Justify Give evidence which supports an argument or idea:

show why a decision or conclusion was made,
considering objections that others might make.

Outline Give only main points, showing the main structure.

Relate Show similarities and connections between two or
 more things.

State Give the main features….

Summarize Draw out the main points only…

To what extent Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a

final outcome. Consider also ways in which
proposition is not true

Trace Follow the order of different stages in an event

The main factors that will determine what mark you will receive in a piece of written work will
be:

 Did you actually answer the question?

 To what extent did you critically respond to the question not just reproducing other
people’s knowledge?

 Did you keep to the point and use relevant information and evidence to support your
arguments?

Assignments that receive poor marks often demonstrate the following characteristics:

 Badly researched

 Lack of an introduction and conclusion

 Lack of focus

 Do not provide supporting evidence

  Poor grammar and spelling

 Lack of references and incorrect references

 Do not satisfy required world count

Closing Comments

Make sure to present piece of work that meets all requirements. Tutors enjoy marking work that
stands out because it meets their expectations.

END OF NOTES

JAMES M.W. ZIMBA