Source: Schaum’s Outline of Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Edition

ISBN: 9780071623582
Authors: Yoav Peleg Ph.D., Reuven Pnini Ph.D., Elyahu Zaarur M.Sc., Eugene Hecht Ph.D.

5. Harmonic Oscillator

5.1. Introduction
In this chapter we consider a particle moving as a harmonic oscillator with a potential energy of

(5.1)

The general differential equation for the oscillator potential can be solved using a technique that is frequently exploited in
solving quantum mechanics problems. Many problems in physics can be reduced to a harmonic oscillator with appropriate
conditions. In classical mechanics, for example, when expanding potentials around a classical equilibrium point, to the second
order, we obtain the harmonic potential Kx 2 /2.

5.1.1. Schrödinger Equation

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5.1.1. Schrödinger Equation
The classical Hamiltonian for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator is

(5.2)

where k = mω 2 . The variables ω and m are, respectively, the angular frequency and the mass of the oscillator. We have

(5.3)

Thus, the stationary Schrödinger equation is

(5.4)

The eigenfunctions that are the solutions of the Schrödinger equation are

(5.5)

where and H n(ς) are the Hermite polynomials. The eigenvalues of the harmonic oscillator that are the
eigenenergies are

(5.6)

5.2. The Hermite Polynomials

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5.2. The Hermite Polynomials
The Hermite H n(ς) polynomial is a polynomial of degree n that is symmetric for even n and antisymmetric for odd n. The
Hermite polynomial is a solution of the differential equation

(5.7)

This equation can be reduced to

(5.8)

The Hermite polynomials also satisfy the following relations:

(5.9)

and

(5.10)

The generating function of the Hermite polynomials is

(5.11)

where

(5.12)

More information on Hermite polynomials is given in the Mathematical Appendix.

5.3. Two- and Three-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillators

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5.3. Two- and Three-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillators
Similar to the one-dimensional case, the classical Hamiltonian in the two-dimensional case is

(5.13)

In this case the Hamiltonian is separable in x and y, so the problem is reduced to two one-dimensional harmonic oscillators, one
in x and the other in y. The eigenfunctions in this case are

(5.14)

where is the eigenfunction of the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator. The eigenvalue corresponding to
is

(5.15)

The generalization to the three-dimensional case is straightforward.

5.4. Operator Methods for a Harmonic Oscillator

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5.4. Operator Methods for a Harmonic Oscillator
Eigenfunctions can be thought of as an orthonormal basis of unit vectors in an n-dimensional vector space that is obtained by
solving the Schrödinger equation. Here we will go a step further. We will find the eigenvalue spectrum and eigenfunctions using
operators alone. The lowering and raising or annihilation and creation operators, â and â † , are defined by

(5.16)

These operators are very useful tools for representing the eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator. Note that the Hamiltonian
of the harmonic oscillator can be written as

(5.17)

or

(5.18)

It can be proved that the commutation relations for these operators are

(5.19)

Let us denote the nth state of the harmonic oscillator ψn(x) as , so a and â † satisfy (see Problem 5.10)

(5.20)

Now we can justify the names lowering and raising operators for â and â † , respectively. Thus, one can build the state as

(5.21)

where is the vacuum state (n = 0).

5.5. SOLVED PROBLEMS

5.1. A one-dimensional harmonic oscillator is characterized by the potential

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 (5.1.1)

where k is a real positive constant. It can be shown that the angular frequency is , where m is the mass of the
oscillator. (a) Solve the stationary Schrödinger equation for this potential and find the stationary eigenstates for this system.
(b) Refer to part (a), and find the energy eigenvalues of the oscillator. What is the minimal energy eigenvalue? Explain.

SOLUTION

(a) The Hamiltonian of this system can be written as

(5.1.2)

or

(5.1.3)

Thus, the eigenvalue equation is

(5.1.4)

We define , and we change the variable to ; hence, we have

(5.1.5)

Therefore,

(5.1.6)

or

(5.1.7)

For large ζ (large x), the dominant part of the differential equation, Eq. (5.1.7), is

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 (5.1.8)

The solution for this equation points to the asymptotic behavior of the wavefunction for largeζ:

(5.1.9)

So, we can assume

(5.1.10)

Substituting into Eq. (5.1.8) yields

(5.1.11)

or

(5.1.12)

Thus, we have

(5.1.13)

We obtain the Hermite polynomials differential equation,

(5.1.14)

The wavefunction’s behavior around ζ = 0 (x = 0) is accounted for by these polynomials. In order to solve this equation we

substitute , so that

(5.1.15)

and

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 (5.1.16)

Hence,

(5.1.17)

Therefore, all the coefficients of this series must vanish:

(5.1.18)

or

(5.1.19)

We set a 0 ≠ 0 and a 1 = 0 to obtain the value of a 2 , a 4 , … a 2m (m = positive integer); similarly, we set a 0 ≠ 0 and a 1 = 0 to obtain
the values of a 3 , a 5 , … , a 2m −1 (m = positive integer). The a 0 or a 1 values are computed using a normalization condition for the
wavefunction.

(b) As in part (a), we wish the wavefunction to asymptotically approach for large ζ. To begin, set the values of the
coefficients of H(ζ) to zero for some value n. For that n, we obtain

(5.1.20)

That is, ε = 2n +1 or

(5.1.21)

Hence, we obtain the quantization condition for the energy eigenvalues. Without an energy source, the system reaches its
minimal energy eigenvalue at the temperature T = 0 K. This value is imposed by the uncertainty relation

(5.1.22)

and is the minimal energy eigenvalue the system can have.

5.2. A particle with energy moves under the potential of a harmonic oscillator. Compute the probability that the
particle is found in the classically forbidden region. Compare this result to the probability of finding the particle in higher energy
levels.

SOLUTION

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For the classical harmonic oscillator, we have

(5.2.1)

Hence, the energy is

(5.2.2)

which yields . The classically forbidden region is |x| > A n or . Thus, the probability of finding the

particle in the classically forbidden region is

(5.2.3)

Considering the ground state, we have

(5.2.4)

Changing integration variables η = x/λ, we obtain

(5.2.5)

We have A 0 /λ = 1; hence,

(5.2.6)

Solving this numerically, we obtain P 0 = 0.157 8 (see Problem 12.8).

For excited states the probability for being in the classically forbidden region is

(5.2.7)

Putting η = x/λ, we arrive at

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 (5.2.8)

Using the known Hermite polynomials H 0 (η) = 1, H 1 (η) = 2η, H 2 (η) = 4η 2 −2, and , we obtain:

(5.2.9)

The numerical solution is P 1 = 0.111 6. We also find

(5.2.10)

Thus, we have seen that P 0 = 0.157 3, P 1 = 0.111 6, and P 2 = 0.095 1. Note that the value of P n is smaller for higher energy
levels. The reason for this is that particles with high energy are “more classical” than those with lower energies, and hence the
probability for particles in higher energy levels to be in the classically forbidden region is less.

5.3. Using the uncertainty relation , estimate the energy ground state of the harmonic oscillator.

SOLUTION

The classical Hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator is

(5.3.1)

The expectation value of the energy is

(5.3.2)

We can write

(5.3.3)

for the harmonic oscillator . The proof for these results is as follows:

(5.3.4)

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The integral of the antisymmetric function x|ψn(x)| 2 over a symmetric interval is zero; hence, . Similarly,

(5.3.5)

Changing the variables to and , we have

(5.3.6)

so,

(5.3.7)

Thus, we obtain

(5.3.8)

Notice that

(5.3.9)

As the Hermite polynomials are either symmetric or antisymmetric, the multiple is always antisymmetric, and

for the same reason that vanishes, also vanishes. Thus,

(5.3.10)

According to the uncertainty relation, the minimal value of Δp is ; hence,

(5.3.11)

Finally, the minimal value of E(Δx) is obtained by

(5.3.12)

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So, . Also,

(5.3.13)

Hence, the minimal value is

(5.3.14)

as we expected. Here we obtained the exact solution by relying on the lower bound of the uncertainty relation .
This follows from the result that in the ground state, we have a Gaussian form of the eigenfunction:

(5.3.15)

Though the uncertainty relation is normally used to estimate the ground state energy eigenvalue, for the case given above we
can evaluate it exactly.

5.4. Find the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of a two-dimensional isotropic harmonic oscillator; find the degeneracy of the
energy levels. The classical Hamiltonian of this system is

(5.4.1)

SOLUTION

The Hamiltonian of the system can be separated into two parts,H = H x + H y , where

(5.4.2)

Thus, the wavefunction can be written as a multiple of two functions, ψx(x) (the eigenfunction of Ĥ x) and ψ y (y) (the
eigenfunction of Ĥ y) with eigenvalues and , respectively. So, we have Ĥψ = Eψ,
where ψ(x, y) = ψx(x)ψ y (y); hence,

(5.4.3)

Therefore,

(5.4.4)

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The degeneracy of each state E(n x, n y ) is computed as follows: (n + 1) is an integer that assumes all values from 0 to ∞. We
can see from Fig. 5.1 that (n + 1) = constant, defines a line in then x n y space. One can also see that the degeneracy of the
state n is n + 1.

Figure 5.1

5.5. Consider a particle with charge +e moving under a three-dimensional isotropic harmonic potential:

(5.5.1)

in an electric field E = E 0 i. Find the eigenstates and the energy eigenvalues of the particle.

SOLUTION

The classical Hamiltonian of the system is

(5.5.2)

We separate the Hamiltonian into three parts: H = H x + H y + H z, where

(5.5.3)

Notice that H y and H z are identical to the Hamiltonian of the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator, so we can write the
wavefunction as ψ(x, y, z) = ψ 1 (x)ψ 2 (y)ψ 3 (z), where ψ 2 (y) and ψ 3 (z) are the wavefunctions of the one-dimensional harmonic
oscillator:

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 (5.5.4)

with . The equation for ψ 1 (x) is

(5.5.5)

Changing the variables to yields

(5.5.6)

We obtain the differential equation for a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator with the solution

(5.5.7)

or

(5.5.8)

The quantization condition in this case is

(5.5.9)

so the energy eigenvalues are

(5.5.10)

In conclusion, the wavefunctions are

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 (5.5.11)

and the energy eigenvalues are

(5.5.12)

5.6. Consider a particle with mass m in a one-dimensional harmonic potential. At t = 0 the normalized wavefunction is

(5.6.1)

where is a constant. Find the probability that the momentum of the particle att > 0 is positive.

SOLUTION

We denote by the wavefunction of the particle in the momentum space at time t. The probability P for a positive
momentum is

(5.6.2)

We can write as a linear combination of the eigenfunctions in the momentum space:

(5.6.3)

where are the stationary eigenfunctions in the momentum space and the coefficients are . Note
that, here, are the eigenfunctions in the coordinate space. can also be written as

(5.6.4)

The functions are either symmetric or antisymmetric, as are their Fourier transforms . This attribute is conserved
for every t; thus ψ(p, 0) is symmetric, , as is . Hence,

(5.6.5)

Using the fact that is normalized, that is,

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 (5.6.6)

we obtain

(5.6.7)

5.7. (a) Refer to the initial condition in Problem 5.6 and calculate ψ(x, t). (b) Given that at t = 0 the particle is in state

(5.7.1)

where are the eigenfunctions of a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator. Compute the expectation value of x at t > 0.

SOLUTION

(a) First, note that the given ψ(x) is not ψ 0 (x) (the eigenfunction) since , so to find ψ(x, t) we must write ψ(x) as a

linear combination of the eigenfunctions :

(5.7.2)

and

(5.7.3)

where

(5.7.4)

Now, writing , we have

(5.7.5)

So,

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 (5.7.6)

Recall that H n(x/λ) are either symmetric (for even n) or antisymmetric (for odd n); hence, since H n(x/λ) is antisymmetric and

exp is symmetric, C n vanishes for odd n. Thus we need only compute

(5.7.7)

Substituting variables and we obtain,

(5.7.8)

Using the identity

(5.7.9)

we get

(5.7.10)

or

(5.7.11)

(b) It is given that at t = 0 we have

(5.7.12)

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Thus, for t > 0,

(5.7.13)

By definition, the expectation value of x is

(5.7.14)

Let us compute each part separately:

(5.7.15)

Since is symmetric and x is an antisymmetric function, the integration vanishes on a symmetric interval,
, and also on . We turn now to compute

(5.7.16)

We have H 0 (x/λ) = 1 and H 1 (x/λ) = 2x/λ (see the Mathematical Appendix). Therefore,

(5.7.17)

or and

(5.7.18)

So, we finally obtain

(5.7.19)

5.8. Consider the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator with the Hamiltonian

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 (5.8.1)

We define new operators

(5.8.2)

so . (a) compute the commutation relation . (b) For the operators â and â † defined as

(5.8.3) (5.8.4)

compute and , where is the eigenfunction of the oscillator for thenth energy state.

SOLUTION

(a) We use the known commutation relation , so

(5.8.5)

(b) Using the result obtained in part (a), we can write

(5.8.6)

So, substituting in Eq. (5.8.1), we have

(5.8.7)

Now we turn to compute the commutation relation â and â † :

(5.8.8)

Thus, â † â −ââ † = −1 Therefore, we obtain

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 (5.8.9)

We also need to compute the commutation relation ofâ and â † with Ĥ,

(5.8.10)

Similarly,

(5.8.11)

Thus, using the eigenvalue equation of the energy , we can write

(5.8.12)

Therefore, . Similarly,

(5.8.13)

so . We apply on the state , so

(5.8.14)

or

(5.8.15)

Hence, we conclude that is a state that is proportional to , i.e.,

(5.8.16)

where α + is a constant given by

(5.8.17)

We have already seen that ; thus . Choosing , we finally get

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 (5.8.18)

Similarly, we apply on the state and find

(5.8.19)

or

(5.8.20)

So, we conclude that is a state that is proportional to , i.e.,

(5.8.21)

where α − is also a constant

(5.8.22)

We have seen that ; therefore . Choosing , we get

(5.8.23)

Note that if we apply â to the ground state , we get

(5.8.24)

Thus, we introduce the lowering and raising operators â and â † , defined above, that satisfy

(5.8.25)

5.9. Compute the matrix elements of the operators and for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator,

(5.9.1) (5.9.2)

where are the eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator.

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SOLUTION

Let us write and using the lowering and raising operators â and â † (see Problem 5.8):

(5.9.3)

Similarly,

(5.9.4)

from which we can now compute

(5.9.5)

We have seen that

(5.9.6)

Therefore, we have

(5.9.7)

where

(5.9.8)

Hence,

(5.9.9)

In the same way, we can compute

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 (5.9.10)

Now, using the relation in Eq. (5.9.6), we have

(5.9.11)

So, we obtain

(5.9.12)

We can express and in a matrix form as

(5.9.13)

and

(5.9.14)

As expected, and are represented by Hermitian matrices.

5.10. Consider a one-dimensional oscillator in the nth energy level. Compute the expectation values

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What can you say about the uncertainty relation Δ xΔ p?

SOLUTION

Using the operators â and â † , one can find that

(5.10.1) (5.10.2)

and , . Therefore,

so

(5.10.3)

Hence, the ground state satisfies the minimum of the uncertainty relation:

(5.10.4)

5.11. The simplest molecular crystals are formed from noble gasses such as neon, argon, krypton, and xenon. The interaction
between the ions in such a molecular crystal is approximated by the Lennard–Jones potential:

(5.11.1)

The values of V 0 and σ for the noble gasses are listed inTable 5.1.

Table 5.1

Ne Ar Kr Xe

V 0(eV) 0.003 1 0.0104 0.014 0 0.020 0

σ (Å) 2.74 3.40 3.65 3.98

Find the approximate ground state energy of a single ion in such a crystal. Hint: The ion near the minimal value ofV(r) can be
treated as a harmonic oscillator.

SOLUTION

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We begin by approximating the potential V(r) near the minima by a polynomial of the form

(5.11.2)

where V m is the value of V(r m ) and r m are the minima. Hence,

(5.11.3)

and thus V(r m ) = − V 0 . Similarly,

(5.11.4)

Now we can approximate the behavior of an ion in the crystal to the behavior of a harmonic oscillator. The ground state of a
harmonic oscillator with potential is

(5.11.5)

where m is the mass of the ion. Therefore,

(5.11.6)

5.6. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

5.12. Show that the eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator in the ground state and in the first excited state have inflection
points wherever the condition V(x) = E is satisfied, i.e.,

(5.12.1)

5.13. Find the eigenenergies and eigenfunctions for a particle moving under the potential

(5.13.1)

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Hint: It is easy to solve the Schrödinger equation for x > 0 and for x < 0 separately, and then demand that the eigenfunction for
all values of x will be continuous.

Ans

. The eigenfunctions are for n odd where are the eigenfunctions of the harmonic oscillator. The corresponding

eigenenergies are .

5.14. Consider an isotropic three-dimensional harmonic oscillator. (a) Perform a separation of variables and find the
eigenstates of the system. (b) Find the eigenenergies and determine the degeneracy of the levels.

Ans

(a)

(b)

5.15. The wavefunction of a harmonic oscillator at time t = 0 is

(5.15.1)

where is the stationary eigenfunction of the oscillator for the nth state and A is a normalization constant. (a) Compute the
constant A. (b) Compute the eigenfunciton ψ(x, t) for all values of t. (c) Calculate the average at times t = 0, t = π/ω, and t =
2π/ω.

Ans

. (a) ; (b) ;

(c)

5.16. Consider an isotropic two-dimensional harmonic oscillator. (a) Write the stationary Schrödinger equation for the
oscillator. Solve the equation in cartesian coordinates. (b) Write the stationary Schrödinger equation in polar coordinates and
solve it for the ground state. Is this state degenerate?

Ans

(a) Schrödinger equation:

(5.16.1) (5.16.2)

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(b) Schrödinger equation:

(5.16.3) (5.16.4)

and the state is not degenerate (ground state).

5.17. Compute the matrix elements and for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator.

Ans

(5.17.1)

(5.17.2)

5.18. Compute for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator.

Ans

(5.18.1)

5.19. Compute the matrix elements and for the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator.

Ans

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 (5.19.1)

(5.19.2)

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