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3843-1679899855125-UNIT 14 Maths FOR Computing

HND In Computing (ESOFT Metro Campus)

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Pearson
Higher Nationals in
Computing
Unit 14 : Maths for Computing

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Unit Title Unit 14 : Maths for Computing

Assignment Number 1 Assessor

Date Received 1st
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LO1 Use applied number theory in practical computing scenarios.

Pass, Merit & Distinction P1 P2 M1 D1

Descripts
LO2 Analyse events using probability theory and probability distributions.

Pass, Merit & Distinction P3 P4 M2 D2

Descripts

LO3 Determine solutions of graphical examples using geometry and vector methods.
Pass, Merit & Distinction P5 P6 M3 D3
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LO4 Evaluate problems concerning differential and integral calculus.

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Assignment Brief

Student Name /ID Number

Unit Number and Title Unit 14 : Maths for Computing

Academic Year 2022/23

Unit Tutor

Assignment Title Importance of Maths in the Field of Computing

Issue Date

Submission Date

IV Name & Date

Submission Format:
This assignment should be submitted at the end of your lesson, on the week stated at the front of this
brief. The assignment can either be word-processed or completed in legible handwriting.

If the tasks are completed over multiple pages, ensure that your name and student number are present on
each sheet of paper.

Unit Learning Outcomes:

LO1 Use applied number theory in practical computing scenarios.

LO2 Analyse events using probability theory and probability distributions.

LO3 Determine solutions of graphical examples using geometry and vector methods.

LO4 Evaluate problems concerning differential and integral calculus.

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Assignment Brief and Guidance:

Activity 01

Part 1

1. A farmer wants to make square shaped vegetable beds. The required squared area of vegetable
beds will be prepared from a land which is 28 feet in length and 24 feet in width.
a) Find the minimum number of squared vegetable beds that can be prepared from the land
without wasting any area.
b) Briefly explain the technique you used to solve (a).

2. In a company, 5 employees are doing overtime work. First day of the month, all the 5
employees did overtime work. Afterwards, those 5 employees do the overtime work once in
3,4,6, 8 and 12 days respectively.
a) On which day of the month, will all the 5 employees do the overtime work together?
b) Briefly explain the technique you used to solve (a).
Part 2

3. In a warehouse, boxes are stored such that 30 boxes on the bottom row and 21 on the top row.
There are 10 rows in all, with each row having one more box than the one above it.
a) How many boxes have been stored?
b) Briefly explain the technique you used to solve (a).

4. A businessman has done an investment of Rs.200,000.00 on a new business expecting a 5%

interest compounded yearly.
a) Find the total amount of money that the businessman would earn in 6 years.
b) Briefly explain the technique you used to solve (a).

Part 3

1. Define the multiplicative inverse in modular arithmetic and identify the multiplicative inverse
of 7 mod 8 while explaining the algorithm used.

2. Prime numbers are important to many fields. In the computing field also prime numbers are
applied. Provide examples and in detail explain how prime numbers are important in the field of
computing.

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Activity 02

Part 1

1. Define ‘Conditional Probability’ with a suitable example.

2. An aesthetic club has 100 members. Out of them 40 do dancing, 45 do music and 24 do drama.
15 do both dancing and music, 11 do both dancing and drama and 13 do both music and drama
and 5 do dancing, music and drama. Remaining members do arts. Let D represents the
randomly selected member does dancing, M represents the randomly selected member does
music, R represents the randomly selected member does drama. A represents the randomly
selected member does arts.
Represent the given information in a Venn diagram. Use that Venn diagram to answer the
following questions.
a) Find the probability that a randomly selected member either does dancing or music.
b) Find whether the events “The randomly selected member does drama” and “The
randomly selected member does music” are independent or not.

3. Suppose a survey was done in three states on the Covid-19 pandemic situation. Of the total
population of the three states, 25% live in state X, 45% live in state Y, and 30% live in state Z.
In state X, 20% of the citizens have been infected with Covid-19, in state B, 10% of the
citizens have been infected with Covid-19, and in state C, 15% of the citizens have been
infected with Covid-19.
Let X represents the event that the citizen is from state X, Y represents the event that the
citizen is from state Y and Z represents the event that the citizen is from state Z. Let C
represents the event that the citizen has been infected with Covid-19.
a) Find the probability that a randomly selected citizen has not been infected with Covid-19
and lives in state X.
b) Find the probability that a randomly selected citizen has been infected with Covid-19.
c) Given that a randomly selected citizen has been infected with Covid-19, find the
probability that the selected citizen is from state Y.

4. In a game if the player wins, a random gift will be given. There are 3 types [Watch, Voucher,
Pen Drive] of gifts for the winners. There are 7 Vouchers, 6 Watches and 5 Pen Drives. The
number tags of the gifts are stored in a box. If two players win the game and the number tags
of the gifts are selected randomly without replacement.
a) Find the probability that the both winners get a Voucher.
b) Find the probability that one gift is a Watch and the other gift is a Pen Drive.
c) Find the probability that the two winners get different gifts.

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Part 2

5. Differentiate between ‘Discrete Random Variable’ and ‘Continuous Random Variable”.

6. There are two boxes. In each box there are 4 cards with a different number printed on it. The
four cards have been numbered as 1,2,3,4 in each box. Two cards are drawn random from each
box. The random variable X represents the difference between the number on the card from
box 1 minus the number on the card from box 2.

a) Find the mean of this probability distribution. (i.e. Find E[X] )

b) Find the variance and standard deviation of this probability distribution.
(i.e. Find V[X] and SD[X])
The random variables M and W are defined as follows:
M = X+5 and W = (1/2)X+5
c) Find E[M] and E[W].
d) Find V[M] and V[W].
e) Mary and William play a game using the cards in the above boxes. Randomly two cards
are drawn, and Mary records his score using the random variable M and William uses the
random variable W. They repeat this for a large number of times and compare their scores.
Comment on any likely differences or similarities of their scores.

7. A discrete random variable Y has the following probability distribution.

Y=y 1 2 3 4 5
P(Y=y) 1/8 1/4 1/3 k 1/8
where k is a constant.
a) Find the value of k.
b) Find P(Y≤4).
c) Find P(Y>3).

Part 3

8. The “Winkles” quiz team has a winning rate of 72%. The team is planning to participate in 8
quizzes in the next month.
a) Let Y be the number of quizzes win by the team. What are the possible values of Y?
b) What is the probability that the team will win exactly 4 quizzes?
c) What is the probability that the team will lose 2 or less quizzes?
d) What is the mean number of quizzes that the team will win?
e) What are the variance and the standard deviation of the number of quizzes that the team
will win?

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9. In a boys’ school, there are 40 students in grade 9. The weight of the students was measured.
The mean weight of the students was 55 kg and the standard deviation was 2.5 kg. Peter’s
weight was 64kg. Would his weight be considered an outlier, if the weight of the students
were normally distributed? Explain your answer.

10. The working life of a certain electrical equipment is normally distributed with a mean of 180
days and a standard deviation of 4 days.
For each of the following questions, construct a normal distribution curve and provide the
answer.
a) About what percent of the products last between 176 and 184 days?
b) About what percent of the products last between 180 and 184 days?
For each of the following questions, use the standard normal table and provide the answer.
c) About what percent of the products last 172 or less days?
d) About what percent of the products last 184 or more days?

11. In the computing field, there are many applications of Probability theories. Hashing and Load
Balancing are also included to those. Provide an example for an application of Probability in
Hashing and an example for an application of Probability in Load Balancing. Then, evaluate
in detail how Probability is used for each application while assessing the importance of using
Probability to those applications.

Activity 03

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Part 1

1. Find the equation (formula) of a circle with radius r and center C(h,k) and if the Center of a
circle is at (7,-2) and a point on the circle is (-3,5) find the formula of the circle.

2. Find the equation (formula) of a sphere with radius r and center C(h, k, l) and show that
x2 + y2 + z2 - 14x + 6y - 2z - 3 = 0 is an equation of a sphere. Also, find its center and radius.

3. Following figure shows a Parallelogram.

If a=(2i-j+3k) , b=(3i+5j-k), find the area of the Parallelogram.

Part 2

4. If 5x - 2y = 10, 4y = 3x + 36 are two functions. Evaluate the x, y values using graphical

method.

5. Evaluate the surfaces in R 3 that are represented by the following equations.

i. y = 2
ii. z = 6

6. Following figure shows a Tetrahedron.

Construct an equation to find the volume of the given Tetrahedron using vector methods and if the
vectors of the Tetrahedron are a=(2i+j-3k), b=(-i+2j+4k) and c=(5i-7j+k), evaluate the volume of the
Tetrahedron.

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Activity 04

Part 1
1. Determine the slope of the following functions.
i. f(x) = 4x3 + 5x4 - 9x + 2
ii. f(x) = sin(3x) - 5x3 – 7

2. Let the velocity function of a moving object is V(t) = 7t3 + 5t2 - 4t. What is the function for the
acceleration of the object at time t.
Part 2

3. Find the area between the two curves f(x) = 3x2 - 4 and g(x) = 2x+5 on the interval
(-1) ≤ x ≤ 1.

4. It is estimated that t years from now the bee population of a certain farm will be increasing at
the rate of 9t 2 + 10t - 7 hundred bees per year. It has been found that the number of flowers in
the nearby botanical garden increases at the rate of approximately 400 flowers per 10 bees. By
how much will the number of flowers in the nearby botanical garden increase during the next 2
years?

Part 3

5. Sketch the graph of f(x) = x3 - x4 + 6x2 + 3 by applying differentiation methods for analyzing
where the graph is increasing/decreasing, local maximum/minimum points [Using the second
derivative test], concave up/down intervals with inflection points.

6. Identify the maximum and minimum points of the function f(x)= −4x 2 + 6x + 3 by further
differentiation. [i.e Justify your answer using both first derivative test and second derivative
test.]

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Grading Rubric

Grading Criteria Achievement Feedback

(Yes/No)
LO1 : Use applied number theory in practical computing
scenarios.
P1 : Calculate the greatest common divisor and least common
multiple of a given pair of numbers.

P2 : Use relevant theory to sum arithmetic and geometric

progressions.

M1 : Identify multiplicative inverses in modular arithmetic.

D1 : Produce a detailed written explanation of the importance of

prime numbers within the field of computing.
LO2 : Analyse events using probability theory and
probability distributions.

P3 : Deduce the conditional probability of different events occurring

within independent trials.
P4 : Identify the expectation of an event occurring from a discrete,
random variable.

M2 : Calculate probabilities within both binomially distributed and

normally distributed random variables.

D2 : Evaluate probability theory to an example involving hashing

and load balancing.
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LO3 : Determine solutions of graphical examples using

geometry and vector methods.

P5 : Identify simple shapes using co-ordinate geometry.

P6 : Determine shape parameters using appropriate vector methods.

M3 : Evaluate the coordinate system used in programming a simple

output device.
D3 : Construct the scaling of simple shapes that are described by
vector coordinates.
LO4 : Evaluate problems concerning differential and
integral calculus.

P7 : Determine the rate of change within an algebraic function.

P8 : Use integral calculus to solve practical problems involving area.

M4 : Analyse maxima and minima of increasing and decreasing

functions using higher order derivatives.
D4 : Justify, by further differentiation, that a value is a minimum.

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GCD
The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) refers to the greatest number that is a common divisor for a given set
of numbers. It is also termed as the Highest Common Factor (HCF) or the Greatest Common Factor (GCF).
In this lesson, we will learn how to find the greatest common divisor in detail.

What is Greatest Common Divisor?

For a set of positive integers (a, b), the greatest common divisor is defined as the greatest
positive number which is a common factor of both the positive integers (a, b). GCD of any two numbers is
never negative or 0 as the least positive integer common to any two numbers is always 1.

GCD of Two Numbers

Let us see the steps given below to learn how to find the GCD of two numbers.
 Step 1: Write the divisors of the number 'a'.
 Step 2: Write the divisors of the number 'b'.
 Step 3: List the common divisors of 'a' and 'b'.
 Step 4: Now find the divisor which is the highest among the common divisors.

Example 1:

Find the greatest common divisor (or HCF) of 128 and 96.

Solution:

By the method of prime factorisation,

128 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

96 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3

GCD (128, 96) = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x2 = 32

Example: Find the Greatest common factor of 24, 30 and 36.

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Solution: Prime factors of 24 is 23 × 3

Prime factors of 30 = 2 × 3 × 5

Prime factors of 36 = 2^2 x 3^2

From the factorisation, we can see, only 2 x 3 are common prime factors.

Therefore, GCD (24, 30, 36) = 2 x 3 = 6

28 feet in length and 24 feet in width.

Prime factors of 28 = 2*2*7

Prime factors of 24 = 2*2*2*3

GCD = 2*2 = 4

Area of squared vegetable bed = 4*4 = 16

Area of land = 28*24 = 672

minimum number of squared vegetable beds = 672/16 =42

# 42 square beds need to cover the whole vegetable land.

LCM

Least Common Multiple(LCM) is a method to find the smallest common multiple between any two or
more numbers. A common multiple is a number which is a multiple of two or more numbers.

LCM denotes the least common factor or multiple of any two or more given integers. For example, L.C.M of
16 and 20 will be 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5 = 80, where 80 is the smallest common multiple for numbers 16 and 20.

Now, if we consider the multiples of 16 and 20, we get;

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16 → 16, 32, 48, 64, 80,…

20 → 20, 40, 60, 80,…,

We can see that the first common multiple for both numbers is 80. This proves the method of LCM as
correct.

Another method to find the LCM of the given numbers is prime factorization. Suppose, there are three
numbers 12, 16 and 24. Let us write the prime factors of all three numbers individually.

12 = 2 x 2 x 3

16 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3

Now pairing the common prime factors we get the LCM. Hence, there are four 2’s and one 3. So the LCM
of 12, 16 and 24 will be;

LCM (12, 16, 24) = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 48

Find the LCM(3,4,6,8 and 12)

3=3

4 = 2*2

6 =2*3

8 = 2*2*2

12 = 2*2*3

LCM (3,4,6,8,12) = 2*2*2*3 = 24

All employees are doing OT work 1st day of month.

Next time which day of the month, will all the employees do the OT together?

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1+24 = 25th day of the month

Sequence

A sequence is a list of numbers in a specified order. The different numbers occurring in a sequence are
called the terms of the sequence.

Let the terms of a sequence be a1, a2, a3, …, an, …, etc.

The subscripts indicate the position of the term. That means,

First term = a1

Second term = a2

Third term = a3

….

The nth term is the number at the nth position of the sequence and is denoted by an. This term is also called
the general term of the sequence.

Arithmetic progression

Definition 1: A mathematical sequence in which the difference between two consecutive terms is always a
constant and it is abbreviated as AP.

Definition 2: An arithmetic sequence or progression is defined as a sequence of numbers in which for every
pair of consecutive terms, the second number is obtained by adding a fixed number to the first one.

The fixed number that must be added to any term of an AP to get the next term is known as the common
difference of the AP. Now, let us consider the sequence, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16,…

It is considered as an arithmetic sequence (progression) with a common difference 3.

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In AP, we will come across some main terms, which are denoted as:

 First term (a)

 Common difference (d)
 nth Term (an)
 Sum of the first n terms (Sn)

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d, ………. ,a + (n – 1) d

Common Difference in Arithmetic Progression

In this progression, for a given series, the terms used are the first term, the common difference and nth term.
Suppose, a1, a2, a3, ……………., an is an AP, then; the common difference “ d ” can be obtained as;

d = a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = ……. = an – an – 1

nth Term of an AP

The formula for finding the n-th term of an AP is:

an = a + (n − 1) × d

Where

a = First term

d = Common difference

n = number of terms

an = nth term

Sum of N Terms of AP

For an AP, the sum of the first n terms can be calculated if the first term, common difference and the total
terms are known. The formula for the arithmetic progression sum is explained below:

Consider an AP consisting “n” terms.

Sn = n/2[2a + (n − 1) × d]

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This is the AP sum formula to find the sum of n terms in series.

Sum of AP when the Last Term is Given

Formula to find the sum of AP when first and last terms are given as follows:

S = n/2 (first term + last term)

Q)a =21 , an = 30 , n = 10 , sn = ?
Sn = n/2 (first term + last term)
=10/2 (21 + 30)
=5 * 51
= 255
255 boxes have been stored

Geometric progression

A geometric progression or a geometric sequence is the sequence, in which each term is varied by another
by a common ratio. The next term of the sequence is produced when we multiply a constant (which is non-
zero) to the preceding term. It is represented by:

a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, and so on.

Where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

Note: It is to be noted that when we divide any succeeding term from its preceding term, then we get the
value equal to the common ratio.

Suppose we divide the 3rd term by the 2nd term we get:

ar2/ar = r

In the same way:

ar3/ar2 = r

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ar4/ar3 = r

The general form of Geometric Progression is:

a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4,…, arn-1

Where,

a = First term

r = common ratio

arn-1 = nth term

General Term or Nth Term of Geometric Progression

Let a be the first term and r be the common ratio for a Geometric Sequence.

Then, the second term, a2 = a × r = ar

Third term, a3 = a2 × r = ar × r = ar2

Similarly, nth term, an = arn-1

Therefore, the formula to find the nth term of GP is:

an = tn = arn-1

Note: The nth term is the last term of finite GP.

Sum of N term of GP

Suppose a, ar, ar2, ar3,……arn-1 is the given Geometric Progression.

Then the sum of n terms of GP is given by:

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 +…+ arn-1

The formula to find the sum of n terms of GP is:

Sn = a[(rn – 1)/(r – 1)] if r ≠ 1 and r > 1

Where

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a is the first term

r is the common ratio

n is the number of terms

Also, if the common ratio is equal to 1, then the sum of the GP is given by:

Sn = na if r = 1

Q)

Sn = a[(1 – rn)/(1 – r)]

= 200000[(1-1.05^6) / (1-1.05) ]

= 200000( 0.34 / 0.05 )

= 200000 * 6.8

= 1360000

The businessman would earn total amount of money = Rs 1360000

Multiplicative inverse

The multiplicative inverse of a number, say, N, is represented by 1/N or N-1. It is also

called reciprocal, derived from the Latin word ‘reciprocus‘. The meaning of inverse is something which is
opposite. The reciprocal of a number obtained is such that when it is multiplied by the original number, the
value equals identity 1. In other words, it is a method of dividing a number by its own to generate identity 1,
such as N/N = 1.

Fact: When a number is multiplied by its own multiplicative inverse, the resultant value is equal to 1.

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Consider the examples; the multiplicative inverse of 3 is 1/3, of -1/3 is -3, of 8 is 1/8 and 4/7 is -7/4. But the
multiplicative inverse of 0 is infinite because 1/0 = infinity. So, there is no reciprocal for a number ‘0’.
Whereas the multiplication inverse of 1 is 1 only.

1 / x or x-1 (Inverse of x)

For example, the multiplicative inverse of 3 is 1/3, of 47 is 1/47, 13 is 1/13, 8 is 1/8, etc., whereas the
reciprocal of 0 will give an infinite value or 1/0 = ∞. Now to check whether the inverse of a number is
correct or not, we can perform the multiplication operation, such that;

 3 x 1/3 = 1
 47 x 1/47 = 1
 13 x 1/13 = 1
 8 x 1/8 = 1
Hence, you can see in all the above four cases we get the identity number 1. So it is proved.

Multiplicative Inverse Modulo

Let us see some of the methods to the proof modular multiplicative inverse.

Method 1: For the given two integers, say ‘a’ and ‘m’, find the modular multiplicative inverse of ‘a’ under
modulo ‘m’.

The modular multiplicative inverse of an integer ‘x’ such that.

ax ≡ 1 ( mod m )

The value of x should be in the range of {0, 1, 2, … m-1}, i.e., it should be in the ring of integer modulo m.

Note that the modular reciprocal exists, that is, “a modulo m” if and only if a and m are relatively prime.

gcd(a, m) = 1.

Method 2: If a and m are coprime, multiplicative inverse modulo can also be found using the Extended
Euclidean Algorithm

From the Extended Euclidean algorithm that takes two integers to say ‘a’ and ‘b’, finds their gcd and also
finds ‘x’ and ‘y’ such that

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ax + by = gcd(a, b)

To find the reciprocal of ‘a’ under ‘m’, substitute b = m in the above formula. We know that if a and m are
relatively prime, the value of gcd is taken as 1.

ax + my = 1

Take modulo m on both sides, and we get

ax + my = 1(mod m)

We can remove the second term on the left side as ‘my (mod m)’ because, for an integer, y will be 0. So it
becomes,

ax ≡ 1 (mod m)

So, the value of x can be found using the extended Euclidean algorithm, which is the multiplicative inverse
of a.

It is mostly used in equations for simplifications. Mostly it is used for cancellation of the terms. Remember
that if you want to find the multiplicative inverse of a number, then take the reciprocal of a number.

Find the modular inverse of 7 mod 8

(A=7 , C = 8)

7*0=0=0

7*1=7=7

7 * 2 = 14 = 6

7 * 3 = 21 = 5

7 * 4 = 28 = 4

7 * 5 = 35 = 3

7 * 6 = 42 = 2

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7 * 7 = 49 = 1

Inverse of 7 mod 8 is 7

Prime numbers

A prime number is a positive integer having exactly two factors, i.e. 1 and the number itself. If p is a
prime, then its only factors are necessarily 1 and p itself. Any number that does not follow this is termed a
composite number, which can be factored into other positive integers. Another way of defining it is a
positive number or integer, which is not a product of any other two positive integers other than 1 and the
number itself.

The prime number was discovered by Eratosthenes (275-194 B.C., Greece). He took the example of a sieve
to filter out the prime numbers from a list of natural numbers and drain out the composite numbers.

Students can practise this method by writing the positive integers from 1 to 100, circling the prime numbers,
and putting a cross mark on composites. This kind of activity refers to the Sieve of Eratosthenes.

The first ten primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29.

prime numbers are important in the field of computing.

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Prime Numbers and Cyber Security

So how do you securely communicate the initial specifics needed to set up secure communication?

In public-key cryptography, which is the backbone of computer encryption, we can get around this because
the specifics of getting into secure contact do not need to be protected themselves.
Precisely the opposite is the case - people post links to their public keys on social media, so as many people
as possible will be able to encrypt messages for them. Though there are now quite a few encryption
algorithms that exploit prime factorization, the most historically significant and still conceptual blueprint for
the field is RSA [4].
There are two types of commonly used encryption systems: symmetric encryption and asymmetric
encryption.
Symmetric encryption is high-speed but also not all that safe. It uses the same key for encryption and
decryption, and if that anyone untrustworthy finds that key, they can compromise your entire encrypted data.
This type of encryption usually participates in computer or mobile transactions.
You might have noticed that you get sent a security code while online banking- this code is a symmetric
encryption code.
Besides being unsafe, the key needs to circle all members before use. Here is where the magic of
asymmetric encryption comes in.
Asymmetric encryption uses two keys instead of one. One is for encryption, and the other – for decryption.
This approach works because one key is public (encryption), and the other is private (decryption). Therefore,
only those with a private key can understand cipher after decryption, protecting the information from any
online hacker or an untrustworthy user.
This encryption method works and provides a lot of security because of its trapdoor features. Everyone with
a public key can encrypt but going back to decryption is not possible.
The image makes it easier to understand the function of the trapdoor. RSA, the most used encryption, also
uses an asymmetric encryption method.
RSA is an encryption system whose development includes the knowledge of simple facts about numbers.
This system secures information online, and it is a preferred method because the numbers broken down into
prime numbers are multiplied.

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For example, if 11 and 17 are multiplied to get the number 187 when broken down, it will
give the same two numbers. Therefore, the larger the number, the stronger the encryption will
be.

We use computer encryption all the time, e.g., when communicating our credit card information to an online
merchant, logging into our bank, or sending a manually encrypted email to a colleague. In summary, this
means we rely on prime numbers throughout our virtual life – day in, day out.
To understand prime numbers is no senseless quest nor a purely scientific challenge. It is, instead, the
greater understanding of the limitations of all our security, especially if one considers that there has been no
progress in factoring large numbers for several years now.
Researchers have networked several hundred computers together and spent the equivalent of what it would
take a single computer around several thousands of years to complete. It uses advanced factoring algorithms
to factor the “RSA-768″ number — that is to say, a number with 232 digits put up by the RSA group as a
factoring challenge.
Proving it was possible to break 768-bit encryption in non-universal-heat-death timescales is unacceptable
for the world of security experts. As a reaction, the standard for modern encryption moved on to RSA-1024,
using numbers with 309 digits and RSA-2048 with 617 decimal digits.

Prime Numbers in Quantum Computing

1024- and 2048 bit encryptions are supposed to be safe from anyone not in possession of a time machine, as
far as we know — however lately novels like Digital Fortress by Dan Brown [5] and Contact by Carl
Segan [6] refer to a secret NSA project, which supposing is in the possession of secret Quantum Computer
Technology [7] which can chew through even 2048-bit encryption in a reasonable time.

Quantum Computing is lately heavily in the press, and Google and NASA work on a project to make it a
new standard. However, there is no evidence that it can break numbers based on 1024- or 2048-bit
encryption.
The Quantum Computing Algorithm was discovered in 1994 by Peter Shor. His algorithm was great for
integer factorization, which is that you put in an integer number, and it calculates its prime numbers.
This algorithm has been quite successful in decryption, and it can also factorize smaller prime numbers.
However, it has not yet been able to decrypt the RSA scheme. The research is still ongoing, and the day it
becomes successful, all concepts of online privacy will crumble down.

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The decryption of prime numbers is a million-dollar question. No, really. The Clay Mathematics Institute
in Cambridge has put up a million-dollar prize for anyone who can show proof of the Riemann Hypothesis.
You might question how the Riemann Hypothesis is related to Quantum Computing. Well, the connection
between the two means a new method of quantum computing that can potentially decrypt prime numbers.
Using the Riemann Hypothesis would propose that prime numbers are divided predictably, like the zeros in
the Riemann-zeta function. Proving this will also solve the million-dollar question.
Many mathematicians believe that the only accurate method of decryption is going to take place through
quantum computing. As of now, the focus is on experimental implementations of quantum computing.
There is particular importance to prime number factorization as the fundamental building block of all
numbers, which are the root for understanding the universe [8].

Some mathematicians describe number theory a little bit like archaeology. The feeling isn’t one of inventing
modern technologies but of uncovering the logical foundations of the universe, those that describe its
behavior everywhere, throughout all of the time.
The CodeCoda Research Lab, inspired by Digital Fortress, works on a concept for a new Encryption
Algorithm that makes it impossible to break by factoring numbers. Therefore the “Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic” is one of the building blocks of such an algorithm. A detailed understanding of Prime
Numbers is vital to building the next generation of quantum-safe encryption.
Despite such an uproar, the possibility of decryption would not mean the end of security. Even though
quantum computing will be able to decrypt cipher, there is already plenty of security technologies that have
been developed and set in place beforehand.nditional n

kProbability

Probability

Probability is a measure of the likelihood of an event to occur. Many events cannot be predicted with total
certainty. We can predict only the chance of an event to occur i.e., how likely they are going to happen,
using it. Probability can range from 0 to 1, where 0 means the event to be an impossible one and 1 indicates
a certain event. Probability for Class 10 is an important topic for the students which explains all the basic
concepts of this topic. The probability of all the events in a sample space adds up to 1.

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For example, when we toss a coin, either we get Head OR Tail, only two possible outcomes are possible
(H, T). But when two coins are tossed then there will be four possible outcomes, i.e {(H, H), (H, T), (T,
H), (T, T)}.

Probability of event to happen P(E) = Number of favourable outcomes/Total Number of outcomes

Sample space and events

A sample space is a collection or a set of possible outcomes of a random experiment. The sample space is
represented using the symbol, “S”. The subset of possible outcomes of an experiment is called events. A
sample space may contain a number of outcomes that depends on the experiment. If it contains a finite
number of outcomes, then it is known as discrete or finite sample spaces.

The samples spaces for a random experiment is written within curly braces “ { } “. There is a difference
between the sample space and the events. For rolling a die, we will get the sample space, S as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6 } whereas the event can be written as {1, 3, 5 } which represents the set of odd numbers and { 2, 4, 6 }
which represents the set of even numbers. The outcomes of an experiment are random and the sample space
becomes the universal set for some particular experiments. Some of the examples are as follows:

Tossing a Coin

When flipping a coin, two outcomes are possible, such as head and tail. Therefore the sample space for this
experiment is given as

Sample Space, S = { H, T } = { Head, Tail }

A Die is Thrown

When a single die is thrown, it has 6 outcomes since it has 6 faces. Therefore, the sample is given as

S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Law of Total Probability

For two events A and B associated with a sample space S, the sample space can be divided into a set A ∩ B′,
A ∩ B, A′ ∩ B, A′ ∩ B′. This set is said to be mutually disjoint or pairwise disjoint because any pair of sets
in it is disjoint. Elements of this set are better known as a partition of sample space.

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This can be represented by the Venn diagram as shown below. In cases where the probability of occurrence
of one event depends on the occurrence of other events, we use the law of total probability theorem.

Independent events

In Probability, the set of outcomes of an experiment is called events. There are different types of events such
as independent events, dependent events, mutually exclusive events, and so on.

If the probability of occurrence of an event A is not affected by the occurrence of another event B, then A
and B are said to be independent events.

Consider an example of rolling a die. If A is the event ‘the number appearing is odd’ and B be the event ‘the
number appearing is a multiple of 3’, then

P(A)= 3/6 = 1/2 and P(B) = 2/6 = 1/3

Also A and B is the event ‘the number appearing is odd and a multiple of 3’ so that

P(A ∩ B) = 1/6

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P(A│B) = P(A ∩ B)/ P(B)

=1613=12
P(A) = P(A│B) = 1/2 , which implies that the occurrence of event B has not affected the probability of
occurrence of the event A .

If A and B are independent events, then P(A│B) = P(A)

Using the Multiplication rule of probability, P(A ∩ B) = P(B) .P(A│B)

P(A ∩ B) = P(B) .P(A)

Note: A and B are two events associated with the same random experiment, then A and B are known as
independent events if P(A ∩ B) = P(B) .P(A)

Probability Tree

The tree diagram helps to organize and visualize the different possible outcomes. Branches and ends of the
tree are two main positions. Probability of each branch is written on the branch, whereas the ends are

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containing the final outcome. Tree diagrams are used to figure out when to multiply and when to add. You
can see below a tree diagram for the coin:

Conditional probability

The probability of occurrence of any event A when another event B in relation to A has already occurred is
known as conditional probability. It is depicted by P(A|B).

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As depicted by the above diagram, sample space is given by S, and there are two events A and B. In a
situation where event B has already occurred, then our sample space S naturally gets reduced to B because
now the chances of occurrence of an event will lie inside B.

As we have to figure out the chances of occurrence of event A, only a portion common to both A and B is
enough to represent the probability of occurrence of A, when B has already occurred. The common portion
of the events is depicted by the intersection of both the events A and B, i.e. A ∩ B.

This explains the concept of conditional probability problems, i.e. occurrence of any event when another
event in relation to has already occurred.

When the intersection of two events happen, then the formula for conditional probability for the occurrence
of two events is given by;

P(A|B) = N(A∩B)/N(B)
Or

P(B|A) = N(A∩B)/N(A)

Where P(A|B) represents the probability of occurrence of A given B has occurred.

N(A ∩ B) is the number of elements common to both A and B.

N(B) is the number of elements in B, and it cannot be equal to zero.

Let N represent the total number of elements in the sample space.

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Since N(A ∩ B)/N and N(B)/N denotes the ratio of the number of favourable outcomes to the total number
of outcomes; therefore, it indicates the probability.

Therefore, N(A ∩ B)/N can be written as P(A ∩ B) and N(B)/N as P(B).

⇒ P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B)/P(B)

Therefore, P(A ∩ B) = P(B) P(A|B) if P(B) ≠ 0

= P(A) P(B|A) if P(A) ≠ 0

Similarly, the probability of occurrence of B when A has already occurred is given by,

P(B|A) = P(B ∩ A)/P(A)

a) P(D U M) = n(D U M) / n(S)

= (40 + 30)/100
= 70/100

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= 0.7
b) LHS RHS
P(R n M) = P(R)* P(M)
n(R n M)/n(S)= n(R)/n(S) * n(M)/n(S)
13/100 = 24/100 * 48/100
LHS not equal RHS
R and M are not independent.

3)

a) P(X n not infected)= P(X)* P(not infected)

= 25/100 * 80/100
= 0.2

b) P(C) = P(X n infected) U P(Y n infected) U P(Z n infected)

= (25/100 * 20/100) + (45/100 * 10/100) + (30/100 * 15/100)
= 1/20 + 9/200 + 9/200

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= 0.14
c) P(Y|C) = P(Y n C)/P(C)
= (45/100 * 10/100) / (14/100)
= 45/140

04)

a) P(V n V) = 7/18 * 6/17

= 7/51
= 0.1372
b) (1)+(2) = P(W n P) + P(P n W)

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= (6/18 * 5/17) + (5/18 * 6/17)

= 5/51 + 5/51
= 0.196
c) 1 - {P(W n W)+ P(V n V)+ P(P n P)}
1 - {(6/18 * 5/17) + (7/18 * 6/17) + (5/18 * 4/17)}
1 - (5/51 + 7/51 + 10/153)
1 - 46/153
= 107/153 = 0.699

Random Variable

A random variable is a rule that assigns a numerical value to each outcome in a sample space. Random
variables may be either discrete or continuous. A random variable is said to be discrete if it assumes only
specified values in an interval. Otherwise, it is continuous. We generally denote the random variables with
capital letters such as X and Y. When X takes values 1, 2, 3, …, it is said to have a discrete random variable.

As a function, a random variable is needed to be measured, which allows probabilities to be assigned to a set
of potential values. It is obvious that the results depend on some physical variables which are not
predictable. Say, when we toss a fair coin, the final result of happening to be heads or tails will depend on
the possible physical conditions. We cannot predict which outcome will be noted. Though there are other
probabilities like the coin could break or be lost, such consideration is avoided.

Variate

A variate can be defined as a generalization of the random variable. It has the same properties as that of the
random variables without stressing to any particular type of probabilistic experiment. It always obeys a
particular probabilistic law.

 A variate is called discrete variate when that variate is not capable of assuming all the values in the
provided range.

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 If the variate is able to assume all the numerical values provided in the whole range, then it is called
continuous variate.

Types of Random Variable

As discussed in the introduction, there are two random variables, such as:

 Discrete Random Variable

 Continuous Random Variable
Let’s understand these types of variables in detail along with suitable examples below.

Discrete Random Variable

A discrete random variable can take only a finite number of distinct values such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … and so
on. The probability distribution of a random variable has a list of probabilities compared with each of its
possible values known as probability mass function.

In an analysis, let a person be chosen at random, and the person’s height is demonstrated by a random
variable. Logically the random variable is described as a function which relates the person to the person’s
height. Now in relation with the random variable, it is a probability distribution that enables the calculation
of the probability that the height is in any subset of likely values, such as the likelihood that the height is
between 175 and 185 cm, or the possibility that the height is either less than 145 or more than 180 cm. Now
another random variable could be the person’s age which could be either between 45 years to 50 years or
less than 40 or more than 50.

Continuous Random Variable

A numerically valued variable is said to be continuous if, in any unit of measurement, whenever it can take
on the values a and b. If the random variable X can assume an infinite and uncountable set of values, it is
said to be a continuous random variable. When X takes any value in a given interval (a, b), it is said to be a
continuous random variable in that interval.

Formally, a continuous random variable is such whose cumulative distribution function is constant
throughout. There are no “gaps” in between which would compare to numbers which have a limited

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probability of occurring. Alternately, these variables almost never take an accurately prescribed value c but
there is a positive probability that its value will rest in particular intervals which can be very small.

Mean and variance of a discrete random variable

Mean μ

When we know the probability p of every value x we can calculate the Expected Value (Mean) of X:

μ = Σxp

Note: Σ is Sigma Notation, and means to sum up.

To calculate the Expected Value:

 multiply each value by its probability

 sum them up

Variance: Var(X)

The Variance is:

Var(X) = Σx^2p − μ^2

To calculate the Variance:

 square each value and multiply by its probability

 sum them up and we get Σx^2p
 then subtract the square of the Expected Value μ^2

Part 02

Box 1 = 1, 2, 3, 4
Box 2 = 1, 2, 3, 4

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X = difference of value on 1st card and 2nd card.

X = {3,2,1,0}

μ = E(X) = Σ X . P (x=x)
= 3*(2/16) + 2*(4/16) + 1*(6/16) + 0*(4/16)
= 20/16
= 1.25

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E(x2) =1*(6/16) + 4*(4/16) + 9(2/16)

=(6+16+18)/16
=40/16
=2.5

V(x) = E(x^2) - [E(x)]^2

=2.5 - (1.25)^2
= 2.5 - 1.5625
= 0.9375
Σ^2= v(x)
SD = √ 0.9375
= 0.9682

c) E(M) = E(x+5)
= E(x) + E(5)
= 1.25 + 5
= 6.25
E(W) = E[(1/2)x + 5 ]
= E[(1/2)x] + E(5)

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= 1/2 .E(x) + 5
= (1/2 *1.25) +5
= 0.625 + 5
= 5.625
d) V(M) = V(x + 5)
= V(x) + V(5)
= 0.9375 + 0
= 0.9375
V(W) = (1/2)^2 V(x) + 0
= 1/4 * 0.9375 + 0
= 0.2343

7)

a) Total probability = 1
1/8 +1/4 +1/3 + k +1/8 = 1
(3 + 6 + 8 + 3 + k)/24 = 1
20/24 + k = 1
k = 1/6

b) P (Y ≤ 4)
= P(Y = 1) + P(Y =2) + P(Y = 3) + P(Y = 4)

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= 1/8 + 1/4 +1/3 + 1/6

= 21/24
= 0.875
c) P (Y>3)
= P(Y =4) + P(Y = 5)
= 1/6 + 1/8
= 7/24
= 0.291

Part 3
8)
a) Y = {8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0}
b) P(Y=4) = 8C4 p4 q(8-4)
= 8! /[4!(8-4)!] * (0.72)4 * (0.28)4
= 70 * (0.72)4 * (0.28)4
= 0.1156
c) p(Y = 6) = 8C6 * (0.72)6 * (0.28)8-6
=28 * (0.72)6 * (0.28)2
= 0.3058
P(Y = 7) = 8C7 * (0.72)7 * (0.28)8-7
= 8 * (0.72)7 * (0.28)
= 0.2246
p(Y = 8) = 8C8 * (0.72)8 * (0.28)8-8
= 1 * (0.72)8 * 1
= 0.0722

Losing 2 or less quizzes

= p(Y=6) + p(Y =7) + p(Y= 8)
= 0.6026

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Empirical Rule

The empirical rule in statistics, also known as the 68 95 99 rule, states that for normal distributions, 68% of
observed data points will lie inside one standard deviation of the mean, 95% will fall within two standard
deviations, and 99.7% will occur within three standard deviations.

Thanks to the empirical rule, the mean and standard deviation become extra valuable when you reasonably
expect that your data approximate a normal distribution. Simply knowing these two statistics allows you to
calculate probabilities and percentages for various outcomes.

The name of the empirical rule comes from empirical research, which uses observations and measurements
of real-world outcomes rather than theory. In other words, empirical means it is grounded in practical
reality. The empirical rule takes these recorded outcomes and lets you use them to make forecasts and
calculate probabilities.

Additionally, statisticians also refer to the empirical rule as the three-sigma rule because nearly all
observations occur within three standard deviations. This rule sets a statistical control chart’s upper and
lower limits at +/- three standard deviations. In general, this limit serves as a valuable way to
identify outliers because 99.7% of all values should fall within it.

The empirical rule graph below displays the standard normal distribution with the ranges and percentages.

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The graph makes it clear why it is also known as the 68 95 99 rule. Those numbers are the percentages that
correspond to the standard deviation ranges.

How to calculate a z score

To standardize a value from a normal distribution, convert the individual value into a z-score:

1. Subtract the mean from your individual value.

2. Divide the difference by the standard deviation.

Z-score Explanation
formula
 x = individual value
 μ = mean
 σ = standard deviation

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09) μ = 55 kg

σ = 2.5 kg

Peter’s weight = 64 kg

Calculate the z value

= (64 - 55) / 2.5

= 9/2.5

= 3.6

The standard cut off value for finding outliers are

z-scores of +or - 3

3.6 > 3 , peter’s weight is outlier.

10) By calculating z.score of the values where X represents working life of a electrical equipment in a no.
Of days.

a) P(176 ≤ X ≤ 184 ) = P [ (176 -μ)/σ ≤ (X -μ)/σ ≤ (184 -μ)/σ ]

= P [ (176-180)/4 ≤ Z ≤ (184-180)/4]

= P(-4/4 ≤ Z ≤ 4/4)

= P(-1 ≤ Z ≤ 1)

= P(Z ≤ 1) - P(Z ≤ -1)

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=0.8413 - 0.1587

= 68.46%

b) P(180 ≤ X ≤ 184) = P [ (180 -μ)/σ ≤ (X -μ)/σ ≤ (184 -μ)/σ ]

= P [ (180-180)/4 ≤ Z ≤ (184-180)/4]

= P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1)

= P(Z ≤ 1) - P(Z ≤ 0)

= 0.8413 - 0.5000

= 0.3413

= 34.13%

c) P( X≤ 172) = P[ (X -μ)/σ ≤ (172 -μ)/σ]

= P[Z ≤ (172-180)/4]

= P( Z ≤ -2)

= 0.0228

= 2.28%

d) P( X ≥ 184) = P[ (X -μ)/σ ≥ (184 -μ)/σ]

= P[Z ≥ (184-180)/4]

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= P( Z ≥ 1)

= 1 - P(Z ≤ 1)

= 1 - 0.8413

= 0.1587

= 15.87 %

11) Application of Probability in Hashing:

Example: Bloom Filters

Bloom Filters are probabilistic data structures used to test whether an element is a member of a set. They use
multiple hash functions to map elements to positions in a bit array. When querying the filter about the
existence of an element, if any of the bits at the corresponding positions are not set, it means the element is
not in the set. However, due to the nature of hashing collisions, false positives are possible, where the filter
indicates an element is in the set when it is not.

How Probability is Used:

1. **Hash Function Distribution**: The probability distribution of hash functions plays a crucial role in
minimizing false positives. A good hash function should uniformly distribute elements across the array to
reduce the likelihood of collisions and false positives.

2. **False Positive Probability**: Probability calculations are used to determine the optimal size of the
Bloom Filter's bit array and the number of hash functions required to achieve a desired false positive
probability. This involves mathematical analysis based on the expected number of elements in the set and
the desired error rate.

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Importance:

- Space Efficiency: Probability helps in designing space-efficient data structures like Bloom Filters by
quantifying the trade-off between space and false positive probability.

- Performance Optimization: By understanding the probabilistic behavior of hash functions, developers can
optimize the design and parameters of hashing techniques, leading to better performance in terms of memory
usage and query time.

Application of Probability in Load Balancing:

Example: Random Load Balancing Algorithms

Random load balancing algorithms distribute incoming requests across multiple servers randomly. One such
algorithm is the Random Selection Algorithm, where each new request is assigned to a randomly selected
server.

How Probability is Used:

1. **Uniform Distribution**: The probability of selecting any server should be uniform to ensure an even
distribution of the load. This requires the use of random number generators that produce uniformly
distributed numbers.

2. **Probabilistic Analysis**: Probability is used to analyze the expected load on each server over time. By
modeling request arrivals and server processing times probabilistically, developers can predict system
behavior and optimize load balancing strategies accordingly.

Importance:

- Scalability: Probability-based load balancing allows systems to scale efficiently by dynamically

distributing load across available resources. This ensures that no single server becomes overwhelmed with
requests, improving system performance and reliability.

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- Fault Tolerance: Probability-based load balancing can also enhance fault tolerance. By distributing
requests randomly, the system becomes less susceptible to failures of individual servers, as the workload is
spread across multiple servers.

In conclusion, probability plays a critical role in both hashing and load balancing applications in computing.
It enables the design of efficient and scalable systems by providing insights into the behavior of hash
functions, distribution of workload, and optimization of resource utilization. Understanding and leveraging
probabilistic techniques are essential for building robust and high-performance computing systems.

Activity 03

Equation of a Circle

A circle is a closed curve that is drawn from the fixed point called the center, in which all the points on the
curve are having the same distance from the center point of the center. The equation of a circle with (h, k)
center and r radius is given by:

(x-h)^2 + (y-k)^2 = r^2

This is the standard form of the equation. Thus, if we know the coordinates of the center of the circle and its
radius as well, we can easily find its equation.

Equation of a Circle When the Centre is Origin

Consider an arbitrary point P(x, y) on the circle. Let ‘a’ be the radius of the circle which is equal to OP.

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We know that the distance between the point (x, y) and origin (0,0)can be found using the distance
formula which is equal to-

√[x2+ y2]= a

Therefore, the equation of a circle, with the center as the origin is,

x^ 2+y^2= a^2

Where “a” is the radius of the circle.

Equation of a Circle When the Centre is not an Origin

Let C(h, k) be the centre of the circle and P(x, y) be any point on the circle.

Let radius be ‘a’.

Therefore, the equation of the circle with center (h, k)and the radius ‘a’ is,

(x-h)^2+(y-k)^2 = a^2

which is called the standard form for the equation of a circle.

General form of Equation of a Circle

The general equation of any type of circle is represented by:

X^2 + y^2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, for all values of g, f and c.

Adding g^2 + f^2 on both sides of the equation gives,

X^2 + 2gx + g^2+ y^2 + 2fy + f^2= g^2 + f^2 − c ………………(1)

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Since, (x+g)^2 = x^2+ 2gx + g^2 and (y+f)^2 =y^2 + 2fy + f^2 substituting the values in equation (1), we
have

(x+g)^2+ (y+f)^2 = g^2 + f^2−c …………….(2)

Comparing (2) with (x−h)^2 + (y−k)^2 = a^2, where (h, k) is the center and ‘a’ is the radius of the circle.

h=−g, k=−f

a^2 = g^2+ f^2−c

Therefore,

X^2 + y^2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, represents the circle with centre (−g,−f) and radius equal to a2 = g2 + f2− c.

 If g^2 + f^2 > c, then the radius of the circle is real.

 If g^2 + f^2 = c, then the radius of the circle is zero which tells us that the circle is a point that
coincides with the center. Such a type of circle is called a point circle
 g^2 + f^2 <c, then the radius of the circle become imaginary. Therefore, it is a circle having a real
center and imaginary radius.

r2=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2

r2 =(−3−7)2+(5−(−2))2

r2=(−3−7)2 +(5−(−2))2

r2 =(−10)2+(5+2)2

r2=(−10)2+(5+2)2

r2 =100+49

r2=149

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Equation :

X^2 + y^2 - 2hx - 2ky + h^2 + k^2 - r^2 = 0

X^2 + y^2 - 2*7x - 2(-2)y +7^2 + (-2)^2 -149 = 0

X^2 + y^2 - 14x + 4y +49 + 4 - 149 = 0

X^2 + y^2 - 14x +4y -96 = 0

02) The equation of a sphere with radius ( r ) and center C(h, k, l) in a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system is given by:

(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 + (z - l)2 = r2

Where:

(x, y, z) are the coordinates of any point on the sphere.

(h, k, l) are the coordinates of the center of the sphere.

( r ) is the radius of the sphere.

This equation states that the distance from any point (x, y, z) on the sphere to the center (h, k, l) is equal to
the radius( r ).

(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 + (z - l)^2 = r^2

X^2 + h^2 - 2hx + y^2 + k^2 - 2ky + z^2 + l^2 - 2lz = r^2

X^2 + y^2 + z^2- 14x + 6y - 2z -3 = 0

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(x - 7)^2 + (y+ 3)^2 + (z - 1)^2 - 3 -(-7)^2 - (3) - (-1)^2 = 0

(x - 7)^2 + (y+ 3)^2+ (z - 1)^2 - 3 - 49 - 9 - 1 = 0

(x - 7)^2 + (y-(-3))^2 + (z - 1)^2 - 62 = 0

(x - 7)^2 + (y-(-3))^2 + (z - 1)^2 = 62

Center point = ( 7 , -3 , 1 ) , Radius = = 7.87

C)

a=(2i-j+3k) , b=(3i+5j-k),

To find the area of the parallelogram formed by two vectors (a) and ( b), we can use the cross product of
the vectors.

Given vectors (a = 2i - j + 3k) and (b = 3i + 5j - k), we can calculate the cross product (a*b) to find a vector
perpendicular to the parallelogram's plane. The magnitude of this cross product vector gives the area of the
parallelogram formed by ( a) and (b).

The cross product (a*b) is calculated as follows:

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= (i)(−1)(−1)− (j)(2)(−1) + (k)(2)(5) − (i)(3)(−1) − (j)(2)(3) + (k)(3)(2)

=i−2j+10k+3i−6j+6k

=4i −8j+16k

Now, to find the magnitude of a×b:

∣a×b∣=(4)^2+(−8)^2+(16)^2

=16+64+256

= 336

So, the area of the parallelogram formed by a and b is square units.

To find the intersection points of the two functions 5x−2y=10 and 4y=3x+36, we can use the graphical
method.

First, let's rearrange both equations into slope-intercept form y=mx+b

For 5x−2y=10

5x−10=2y

y=(5/2)x −5

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For 4y=3x+36:

y=(3/4)x + 9

Now, let's plot both lines on a graph and find their intersection points:

From the graph, we can see that the two lines intersect at the point (8, 14).

So, the solution to the system of equations is x=8 and y=14.

5)The equations ( y = 2 ) and ( z = 6 ) represent surfaces in ( R 3), specifically, they represent planes parallel
to the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.

1. Equation ( y = 2 ):
This equation represents a plane parallel to the xz-plane at a constant y-coordinate of 2. In other words, all
points on this plane have a y-coordinate of 2. This plane is horizontal and extends infinitely in both the
positive and negative x and z directions.

2. Equation ( z = 6 ):
This equation represents a plane parallel to the xy-plane at a constant z-coordinate of 6. In other words, all
points on this plane have a z-coordinate of 6. This plane is horizontal and extends infinitely in both the
positive and negative x and y directions.

Visually, the plane represented by ( y = 2 ) would look like a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis at a height
of 2 units above the xz-plane.

Similarly, the plane represented by ( z = 6 ) would look like a horizontal line parallel to the y-axis at a height
of 6 units above the xy-plane.

These planes are parallel to each other and extend infinitely in their respective directions.

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6)
base area = 1/2|a×b|
height h=|c|cosθ
V=1/2|a×b|.|c|cosθ
V= 1/6(a×b)c
[ ā ,b¯, ĉ ] = ā(b¯*ĉ)
= 2(2*1 - 4*(-7)) - 1(-1*1 - 4*5) + (-3)(-1*(-7) -5*2)
= 2*30 + 21 +9
= 90
Volume of tetrahedron = 90/6 = 15

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