Lecture - 86

Problem Solving Skills

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How to Solve Problems
Problem: Your hair are dirty, and you want to clean your hair

What steps would you propose to solve the above problem?

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How to Solve Problems
Problem: Hair are dirty
Solution: Clean hair
How: “Wash the hair” algorithm

Algorithm;
Turn on water tab
Wet your hair
Apply shampoo
Rinse
Dry off

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How to Solve Problems
Problem: How to make a brownie?
Solution: ??

Problem: How to make a cup of tea?

Solution: ??

Problem: How to get good marks?

Solution: ??

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Algorithms
We are given a problem to solve:
Understand and analyze the problem and its requirements
Like in the case of dirty hair, the requirement is the clean hair
Devise steps to solve a problem

The ordered collection of these steps is called an algorithm

When writing an algorithm for the computer, the “order of operations” is a must

The formal definition of algorithm;

“a step-by-step method for solving a problem or doing a task”

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Algorithms
Characteristics of algorithms;
Definite and having input and output
Well-ordered, the steps are in a clear order
Unambiguous, the operations described are understood by a computing agent without further simplification
Effectively computable, the computing agent can carry out the operation

Input Algorithm Output

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Algorithms vs Pseudocode
Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps in developing algorithms
It is a method of writing an algorithm that may be in informal English, combinations of computer and/or
spoken languages (whatever works for you)

Algorithm is a systematic logical approach used to solve problems while Pseudocode are statements in natural
language (syntax of communication) about solving a problem

Two important concepts, when writing algorithms;

Variable
the identifier associated with a memory location used to store data
Sometimes called a named memory location
Constant
a data item with a fixed value

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Algorithms
Example: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final score* and then print it to the output screen
* the final score is calculated as the average of the four subjects marks

Pseudocode
Input a set of 4 marks (numbers)
Calculate their average, add all the numbers and divide by 4
Print average

Algorithm
START
Step 1: INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4
Step 2: score ← (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4
Step 3: PRINT score
END
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Rules of Algorithms
Input:
use keyword “INPUT” or “GET” followed by a list of variables separated by a single comma

Examples:
INPUT a
INPUT a, b
GET a
GET a, b

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Rules of Algorithms
Output:
use keyword “OUTPUT”, “DISPLAY”, “WRITE”, or “PRINT” followed by a variable name or text
enclose “text/message” in inverted commas
do not enclose variable name in inverted commas

Examples:
OUTPUT “Enter a number”
DISPLAY “Your number is ” num

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Rules of Algorithms
Storage/Assignment:
to give an initial value, use ‘INITIALIZE’ or ‘SET’ in combination with “=”, “:=” or use keyword “=”,
“:=”, “<-”
to keep a variable for later use, use ‘SAVE’ or ‘STORE’

Examples:
INITIALIZE x
SET x = 8
x=8
SET x := 8
x := 8
x <- 8

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Rules of Algorithms
Arithmetic operations:
use different mathematics symbols or expressions
Logical (or comparison) operations:
use logical and comparison operators

Examples:
x = 5, y = 7
x > y or x < y
z=x+y
z = 12

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 Structure Theorem
A structure theorem states that it is possible to write any algorithm by using only three basic control
structures;

1. Sequence
I must study classes from grade 1 to grade 10
I cannot skip any class in order to reach in grade 10
2. Repetition
If I am failed in a grade, I must repeat it until pass
3. Selection
I have passed my 10th grade, now I must select between Science and Arts groups

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Structure Theorem
Sequence is an ordered list of steps to be executed
It determines an order in which one step follows the other
For example, you can not calculate average if you don’t have a series of numbers (at least 2) as input etc.

A loop is a repetition of all or some part(s) of the commands (steps)

A loop often has a counter (a variable) and continues to repeat a specified number of times
A loop may also continue, till a condition is true, or until a certain condition is met (e.g., until the end of a file
or until a number reaches a set limit)

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Structure Theorem (Repetition)
FOR is a loop that allows steps to be repeatedly executed
it is typically used when the number of iterations are known beforehand

Example:
FOR (number=1; number<10; number++)
DISPLAY number
END FOR

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Structure Theorem (Repetition)
WHILE is a control flow statement that allows steps to be executed repeatedly based on a given condition

Example:
number = 1
WHILE (number<10)
DISPLAY number
number = number + 1
END WHILE

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Structure Theorem (Repetition)
DO WHILE is a statement that performs the action(s) at least once

Example:
number = 1
DO
DISPLAY number
number = number + 1
WHILE (number<10)

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Structure Theorem (Repetition)
Example: Write an algorithm to read and print 10 records using the while loop

START
SET total = 0
WHILE (total < 10)
READ record
PRINT record
total = total + 1
END WHILE
END

The variable ‘total’ is initialized before the loop condition is executed

It is then incremented within the body of the loop, so the loop will eventually stop

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Sometimes we need to put certain condition(s) before performing an action
If the condition(s) is ‘true’, then action will be executed, else not

Selection compares two pieces of information and select one of the two alternatives
It is represented by the IF statement and keywords IF, THEN, ELSE and ENDIF

IF statement always has a condition to check, often a comparison between a variable and a number
The IF statement also must specify what to do if the condition/comparison is true
These instructions (for “true”) comes after the word THEN

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
IF – THEN – END IF (Single IF)
Single IF selection statement either performs an action if a condition is true or skips the action if the condition is false

IF – ELSE – END IF (Double IF)

Double IF selection statement performs an action if a condition is true and performs a different action if the condition is false

IF – ELSE IF – ELSE – END IF (Multiple IF)

Multiple IF selection statement performs one of the many different actions, depending on the value of the expression

IF – IF – ELSE – END IF – ELSE – END IF (Nested IF)

Nested IF selection statement means an if statement inside another if statement, it is an if statement that is the target of another if
statement

Switch (Alternate to Multiple IF)

The SWITCH selection statement is an alternative to multiple IF statement

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Single IF
IF (condition) THEN
<<steps>>
END IF

Double IF
IF (condition) THEN
<<steps>>
ELSE
<<steps>>
END IF

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Multiple IF Nested IF
IF (condition) THEN IF (condition) THEN
<<steps>> IF (condition) THEN
ELSE IF (condition) THEN <<steps>>
<<steps>> ELSE
ELSE IF (condition) THEN <<steps>>
<<steps>> END IF
ELSE ELSE
<<steps>> <<steps>>
END IF END IF

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Example: Write an algorithm to determine if a student has passed* a subject and print it to the output
screen
*the passing marks are 50 and above

Pseudocode
Input marks (a number)
If the marks are 50 or above, print “PASS”

Algorithm
START
Step 1: INPUT marks
Step 2: IF (marks >= 50) THEN
PRINT “PASS”
END IF
END
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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Example: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final score*, indicate whether the student is pass or
fail**, and print it to the output screen
*the final score is calculated as the average of the four subjects marks
**the passing marks are 50 and above

Pseudocode
Input a set of 4 marks (numbers)
Calculate their average, add all the numbers and divide by 4
If average is below 50, print “FAIL”, else, print “PASS”

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Example: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final score*, indicate whether the student is pass or
fail**, and print it to the output screen
*the final score is calculated as the average of the four subjects marks
**the passing marks are 50 and above

Algorithm
START
Step 1: INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4
Step 2: score ← (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4
Step 3: IF (score < 50) THEN
PRINT “FAIL”
ELSE
PRINT “PASS”
END IF
END 26
Structure Theorem (Selection)
Example: Write an algorithm to determine a student’s final score*, determine whether the student is pass or
fail**, if the student is pass, calculate the student’s grade (based on the criterion given below), and print the
grade to the output screen
*the final score is calculated as the average of the four subjects marks
**the passing marks are 50 and above

o If marks are between 50 and 59, grade is E

o If marks are between 60 and 69, grade is D
o If marks are between 70 and 79, grade is C
o If marks are between 80 and 89, grade is B
o If marks are between 90 and 100, grade is A

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Structure Theorem (Selection)
Algorithm

START
Step 1: INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4 ELSE IF (score >= 90 && score <= 100)

Step 2: score ← (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4 PRINT “Grade is A”

Step 3: IF (score >= 50) THEN END IF

PRINT “PASS” ELSE

IF (score >= 50 && score <= 59) PRINT “FAIL”

PRINT “Grade is E” END IF

ELSE IF (score >= 60 && score <= 69) END

PRINT “Grade is D”
ELSE IF (score >= 70 && score <= 79)
PRINT “Grade is C”
ELSE IF (score >= 80 && score <= 89)
PRINT “Grade is B” 28
Structure Theorem (Repetition+Selection)
Example: Write a WHILE loop structure that displays any number input by the user on the screen and only
terminates when the user enters a sentinel value (assume the sentinel value to be -1)

INPUT a
WHILE (a != -1)
DISPLAY a
INPUT a
END WHILE

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Flowchart
Flowchart is a graphical representation that shows logic solution
Emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections
It must have a start and stop step
All steps in a flowchart must connect, i.e., you can’t leave a step “hanging” with no connection

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Flowchart (Symbols)
Start/End
used at the beginning and end of each flowchart
Input/Output
shows when data comes in or information is printed out
Process
used to show calculations, storing of data in variables, and other “processes”
Decision
used to show that the flow must decide whether
something (usually a comparison between numbers) is true or false
Connector
used to show that flowchart continues another page
Flow Direction
shows the direction of flow

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 Flowchart
Example: Write an algorithm and draw flowchart that inputs two numbers from the user, multiply it, and
print the answer to the screen

Algorithm Flowchart
START START
Step 1: INPUT w, m
Step 2: a ← m x w Input w, m

Step 3: PRINT a
a¬mxw
END

PRINT a

END

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 Flowchart
Example: Write an algorithm and draw flowchart to determine a student’s final score and indicate whether
the student is pass or fail, and print it to the output screen

Algorithm Flowchart
START
START

Step 1: INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4 INPUT

n1, n2, n3, n4
Step 2: grade ← (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4
Step 3: IF (grade < 50) then grade ¬ (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4

PRINT “FAIL”
IF
ELSE grade<50

PRINT “PASS”
PRINT “FAIL” PRINT “PASS”
END IF
END
END

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 Trace Tables & Dry Run
Dry run
working through a section of an algorithm (program) manually
Trace table
a technique used to test algorithms to make sure they work without any error

Read more: http://www.101computing.net/trace-table/ 34

 Trace Tables & Dry Run
Example: Following is an algorithm that takes a number as an input, multiplies it by 2, and prints the output
to the screen. Make trace table for the algorithm.

Algorithm Trace Table

START Step Algorithm Lines X Y Output
Step 1: SET x := 0 START - - -
Step 2: INPUT y 1 SET x := 0 0 - -
Step 3: x := y * 2 2 INPUT y 0 5 -
Step 4: OUTPUT x 3 x := y * 2 10 5 -
END 4 OUTPUT x 10 5 10
END - - -

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 Trace Tables & Dry Run
Example: Following is an algorithm that take five numbers as input from the user, calculates and display their
sum and average. Make trace table for the algorithm

Algorithm
START
Step 1: SET sum := 0, average := 0, totalNumbers :=5
Step 2: INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4, n5
Step 3: sum := n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5
Step 4: average := sum / totalNumbers
Step 5: PRINT “Sum is ” sum
Step 6: PRINT “Average is ” average
END

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 Trace Tables & Dry Run
Trace Table

Step Algorithm Lines n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 sum average totalNumbers Output

START - - - - - - - - -
1 SET sum := 0, average := 0, totalNumbers :=5 - - - - - 0 0 5 -
2 INPUT n1, n2, n3, n4, n5 25 17 34 9 75 0 0 5 -
3 sum := n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5 25 17 34 9 75 160 0 5 -
4 average := sum / totalNumbers 25 17 34 9 75 160 32 5 -
5 PRINT “Sum is ” sum 25 17 34 9 75 160 32 5 Sum is 160
Sum is 160
6 PRINT “Average is ” average 25 17 34 9 75 160 32 5
Average is 32
END - - - - - - - - -

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THANK YOU

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