EEE130: Electric Circuit Theory

Lecture 5: Capacitors and Inductors

Prepared by: Engr. Jared Jan A. Abayan, MSEE

Introduction

• Resistors are passive elements which dissipate energy only.

• Two important passive linear circuit elements:

1. Capacitor
2. Inductor

• Capacitors and Inductors do not dissipate but store energy,

which can be retrieved at a later time.

• Capacitors and Inductors are called storage elements.

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Capacitor
• It consists of two conducting plates which are separated by
an insulator or a dielectric.

Plates may be made of aluminum while the

A capacitor with applied voltage, v.
dielectric may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.

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Capacitor
There are three factors affecting the value of the capacitance:

1. Area (A) – the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
2. Spacing between plates (d) – the smaller the spacing, the
greater the capacitance.
3. Material Permittivity (𝜺) – the higher the permittivity, the greater
the capacitance.

𝜺𝑨
𝑪=
𝒅

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Capacitor
The relationship between the charge in the plates and the voltage
across the capacitor is given as:

𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗

The capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to

the voltage difference between the two plates, measured in Farads (F).

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Capacitor
Circuit symbols for a fixed and variable capacitor, respectively.

Real-life representation of Capacitors:

Polyester Ceramic Electrolytic Variable

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Voltage Limit on a Capacitor
• The plate charge increases as the voltage increases. Also, the
electric field intensity between the two plates will increase.

• If the voltage across the capacitor is so large that the field

intensity is large enough to break down the insulation of the
dielectric, the capacitor is out of work.

• Hence, every practical capacitor has a maximum limit on its

operating voltage.

𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗

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Capacitor Current-Voltage Relationship
Take the derivative of both sides with respect to time:
𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗

𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝒗
=𝒊=𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

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Capacitors
When a constant voltage is applied, there is no current flowing
through the capacitor. Thus, the capacitor in this case is the
same as an open circuit.

If the voltage is abruptly changed,

the current will have an infinite
𝒅𝒗 value which is practically
𝒊=𝑪 impossible. Hence, a capacitor is
𝒅𝒕 impossible to have an abrupt
change in its voltage except an
infinite current is applied.

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Important Properties of Capacitors
1. A capacitor is an open circuit to DC.
2. The voltage on a capacitor cannot change abruptly.

3. Ideal capacitors do not dissipate energy. It takes power from the

circuit when storing energy in its field and returns previously stored
energy when delivering power to the circuit.

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Important Properties of Capacitors
4. A real, non-ideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance.
The leakage resistance may be as high as 100 MΩ and can be
neglected for most practical applications. Thus, we will assume
ideal capacitors.

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Important Properties of Capacitors
5. A capacitor has memory. The capacitor voltage depends on the past
history of the capacitor current.

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Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is given as:

Energy Stored in the Capacitor can be obtained from:

or

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Series Capacitors

Series-connected N capacitors Equivalent Circuit

The total voltage across the circuit can be obtained by:

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒕 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝑵 (𝒕)

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Series Capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of the series-connected capacitors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

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Parallel Capacitors

Parallel-connected N capacitors Equivalent Circuit

The total current across the circuit can be obtained by:

𝒊 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒊𝑵

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Parallel Capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of the parallel-connected capacitors is the
sum of the individual capacitances.

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Inductors
• It is made of a coil of conducting wire.

Inductance is the property where an inductor exhibits opposition to the

change of current flowing through it and is measured in Henrys (H).

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Inductor
Circuit symbols for an air-core, iron-core and variable iron-core
inductor, respectively.

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Inductor
Real-life representation of Inductors

Solenoidal Inductor Toroidal Inductor Chip Inductor

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Inductor Voltage-Current Relationship
The amount of voltage across a perfect inductor is directly
proportional to the rate of current change through it.

𝒅𝒊
𝒗=𝑳
𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝟏 𝒕
𝒅𝒊 = 𝒗 𝒅𝒕 integrating both sides will give 𝒊 = ‫𝒗 ׬‬ 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑳 𝑳 −∞

𝟏 𝒕
𝒊 = න 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒊(𝒕𝟎 )
𝑳 𝒕𝟎
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Inductor Voltage-Current Relationship
𝒊 𝒕𝟎 is the total current for −∞ < 𝒕 < 𝒕𝟎 and 𝒊 −∞ = 𝟎

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Inductors
When the current through an inductor is a constant, then the
voltage across the inductor is zero, same as a short circuit.

No abrupt change of the current

through the inductor is possible
except an infinite voltage across
the inductor is applied.
𝒅𝒊
𝒗=𝑳 The inductor can be used to
𝒅𝒕 generate a high voltage, for
example, used as an igniting
element.

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Important Properties of Inductors
1. An inductor is a short circuit to DC.
2. The current through an inductor cannot change abruptly.

3. Ideal inductors do not dissipate energy. It takes power from the

circuit when storing energy in its coils and returns previously
stored energy when delivering power to the circuit.

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Important Properties of Capacitors
4. A practical, non-ideal inductor has a significant resistive
component. This resistance is called the winding resistance. The
non-ideal inductor also has a winding capacitance due to the
capacitive coupling between the conducting coils. We will assume
and use ideal inductors throughout this course.

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Important Properties of Capacitors
5. An inductor has memory. The inductor current depends on the past
history of the inductor voltage.

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Energy Stored in an Inductor
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is given as:

Energy Stored in the Capacitor can be obtained from:

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Series Inductors

Series-connected N inductors Equivalent Circuit

The total voltage across the circuit can be obtained by:

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒕 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝑵 (𝒕)

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Series Inductors
The equivalent capacitance of the series-connected inductors is the
sum of the individual inductances.

𝑑𝑖
Substitute 𝑣 = 𝐿 to the equation obtained for the total voltage.
𝑑𝑡

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Parallel Inductors

Parallel-connected N inductors Equivalent Circuit

The total current across the circuit can be obtained by:

𝒊 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒊𝑵

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Parallel Inductors
The equivalent inductance of the parallel-connected inductors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

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Homework # 6 – Deadline: October 22, 2024

1. What are capacitors?

2. What are inductors?
3. How do you combine series connected Capacitors?
4. How do you combine series connected Inductors?
5. How do you combine parallel connected Capacitors?
6. How do you combine parallel connected Inductors?

7-10. Solve 4 problems related to the topics discussed.

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EEE130: Electric Circuit Theory
Lecture 6: First-Order Circuits

Prepared by: Engr. Jared Jan A. Abayan, MSEE

First-Order Circuits

• A first-order circuit can only contain one energy storage

element either a capacitor or an inductor.

• The circuit will also contain a certain amount of resistance.

• Two types of first-order circuits:

1. RC Circuit
2. RL Circuit

• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order

differential equation.

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First-Order Circuits: Source-Free

• A source-free circuit is one where all independent sources

have been disconnected from the circuit after a switching
action.

• The voltages and currents in the circuit typically will have

some transient response due to initial conditions:
• Initial Capacitor Voltages
• Initial Inductor Currents

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Source-Free RC Circuits

• A source-free RC Circuit occurs when its DC Source is

suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to
the resistors.

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Source-Free RC Circuits

Since the capacitor is initially Applying KCL at the top node:

charged, we can assume that at
time t=0, the initial voltage is:

The energy stored in the capacitor:

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Source-Free RC Circuits
Rearranging the first-order
differential equation,

From the initial conditions,

v(0) = A = V0
Integrating both sides:

Simplifying and taking the The natural response of a

powers of e will produce: circuit refers to the behavior of
the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.

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Source-Free RC Circuits
The general form of first-order differential equations and the
response for a source-free circuit:

• A first-order DE has the form:

• Solving this DE will yield:

τ is the time constant measured in seconds.

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Time Constant and Equivalent Resistance
For a first-order source-free RC circuit, the time constant has
been determined as 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪. In general, a first-order RC circuit
has the following time constant:

𝝉 = 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝑪

where Req is the Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor.

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Example # 1 – Source-Free RC Circuits
Let Vc(0) = 15V. Find Vc, Vx, and ix for t>0.

Answer: vc = 15e-2.5t V; vx = 9e-2.5t V; ix = 0.75e-2.5t A

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Example # 2 – Source-Free RC Circuits
Let Vc(0) = 45V. Find Vc, Vx, and i0 for t>0.

Answer: vc = 45e-0.25t V; vx = 15e-0.25t V; i0 = -3.75e-0.25t A

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Example # 3 – Source-Free RC Circuits
The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time, and it is
opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in
the capacitor.

Answer: vc = 15e-5t V; W = 2.25 J

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Source-Free RL Circuits

• A source-free RL Circuit occurs when its DC Source is

suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the inductor is released to the
resistors.

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Source-Free RL Circuits

Since the inductor is initially Applying KVL around the loop:

charged, we can assume that at
time t=0, the initial current is:

The energy stored in the inductor:

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Source-Free RL Circuits
Rearranging the first-order differential Taking the powers of e,
equation then integrating,

From the initial conditions,

v(0) = A = V0

The natural response of a

circuit refers to the behavior of
the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.

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Source-Free RL Circuits
The general form of first-order differential equations and the
response for a source-free circuit:

• A first-order DE has the form:

• Solving this DE will yield:

τ is the time constant measured in seconds.

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Time Constant and Equivalent Resistance
For a first-order source-free RL circuit, the time constant has
𝑳
been determined as 𝝉 = 𝑹. In general, a first-order RL circuit
has the following time constant:
𝑳
𝝉=
𝑹𝒆𝒒

where Req is the Thevenin resistance as seen by the inductor.

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Example # 4 – Source-Free RL Circuits
Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit below.

Answer: i(t) = 10e-0.67t A; ix = -1.6667e-0.67t A

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Example # 5 – Source-Free RL Circuits
The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time. At t=0,
the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t>0.

Answer: i(t) = 6e-4t A

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Step Response of First-Order Circuits
Consider circuits having DC forcing functions (has independent
DC sources) for t>0.

The general solution to a differential equation has two parts:

𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒉 + 𝒙𝒑 = homogeneous solution + particular solution

or
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒙𝒇 = natural solution + forced solution

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Step Response of First-Order Circuits
• DC sources imply that the forced response function will
be constant.
• Recall that for a 1st order source-free circuit, the natural
response, xn, is expressed as:

𝒕
−𝝉
𝒙𝒏 = 𝑨𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 > 𝟎

• Since we are only considering DC forcing functions, we

assume that the forced response, xf, is equal to:

𝒙𝒇 = 𝑩 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕)

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Step Response of First-Order Circuits
• The complete response for the 1st order circuit with DC
forcing functions can now be expressed as:

𝒕
−
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆 𝝉 +𝑩

• Shortcut Method: Another method can be used to easily

find the constants A and B from the complete response.
To evaluate x(t) at two convenient points, we need to
consider t = 0 and t = ∞ since the circuit is under dc
conditions at these two points.

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Step Response - Shortcut Method
• The complete response yields the expression in using the
shortcut method:
𝒕
−
𝒙 𝒕 =𝒙 ∞ + 𝒙 𝟎 −𝒙 ∞ 𝒆 𝝉

The Shortcut Method – Procedure:

• Step 1: Analyze the circuit at 𝒕 = 𝟎− : Find 𝒙 𝟎− = 𝐱 𝟎+

• Step 2: Analyze the circuit at 𝒕 = ∞: Find 𝒙(∞)
𝑳
• Step 3: Find 𝝉 = 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑪 or 𝝉 =
𝑹𝒆𝒒
• Step 4: Assume that 𝒙(𝒕) has the form
𝒕
𝒙 𝒕 =𝒙 ∞ + 𝒙 𝟎 −𝒙 ∞ 𝒆 −
𝝉 using 𝒙 𝟎 and 𝒙 ∞

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Step Response - Shortcut Method

The Shortcut Method also works for source-free

circuits, but 𝒙 ∞ = 𝑩 = 𝟎 since the circuit is dead at
𝒕 = ∞. If variables other than 𝒗𝒄 or 𝒊𝑳 are needed, it is
generally easiest to solve for 𝒗𝒄 or 𝒊𝑳 first and then
use the result to find the desired variable.

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Example # 6 – Step Response of RL Circuits
The switch in the circuit shown has been in position A for a long time.
At t=0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t>0 and calculate its
value at t = 1s and 4s.

Answer: vc(t) = 15(2-e-0.5t) V; t = 1s: 20.9 V; t = 4s: 27.97 V

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Homework # 7 – Deadline: October 25, 2024

Solve 3 problems that are Source-Free RC Circuits.

Solve 3 problems that are Source-Free RL Circuits.
Solve 2 problems that are Driven RC Circuits.
Solve 2 problem that are Driven RL Circuits.

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EEE130: Electric Circuit Theory
Lecture 7: Second-Order Circuits

Prepared by: Engr. Jared Jan A. Abayan, MSEE

Second-Order Circuits
• A second-order circuit is a circuit that is represented by a
second-order differential equation.

• Second-order circuits have two (2) independent energy storage

elements (inductors and/or capacitors).

• A 2nd order differential equation has the form:

• Solution of a 2nd order DE requires two initial conditions: x(0) and

x’(0).

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Second-Order Parallel Circuits
Consider an a parallel RLC circuit containing two irreducible
energy storage elements that are described by a 2nd order
differential equation.

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Second-Order Circuits
Writing the nodal equation from the top
node:

Substitute the equation for the inductor

voltage:

Substitute [2] to [1], obtaining [3]

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Second-Order Series Circuits
Consider an a series RLC circuit containing two irreducible energy
storage elements that are described by a 2nd order differential
equation.

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Second-Order Circuits
Writing the mesh equation from the loop:

Substitute [6] to [5]:

Substitute the equation for the capacitor
current:

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Direct Method for Second-Order DE

Direct method for Obtaining the Second-Order Differential Equation of a Circuit

Identify the first and second variables, x1 and x2. These variables
Step 1
are capacitor voltages and/or inductor currents.
𝒅𝒙𝟏
Step 2 Write one first-order differential equation, obtaining = 𝒇 𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒕

Obtain an additional first-order differential equation in terms of the

Step 3 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝒙𝟐
second variable so that = 𝒌𝒙𝟏 or 𝒙𝟏 =
𝒅𝒕 𝑲 𝒅𝒕

Substitute the equation of step 3 into the equation of step 2, thus

Step 4
obtaining a second-order differential equation in terms of x2.

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Operator Method for Second-Order DE
Operator method for Obtaining the Second-Order Differential Equation of a Circuit

Step 1 Identify the variable x1 for which the solution is desired.

Write one differential equation in terms of the desired variable x1 and a
Step 2
second variable x2.
Obtain an additional equation in terms of the second variable and the first
Step 3
variable.
𝑑 1
Use the operator 𝑠 = and = ‫ 𝑡𝑑 ׬‬to obtain two algebraic equations in
Step 4 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
terms of s and the two variables x1 and x2.
Using Cramer’s rule to solve for the desired variable so that x1 =
Step 5 𝑃(𝑠)
f(s,sources) = , where P(s) and Q(s) are polynomials in terms of s.
𝑄(𝑠)

Step 6 Rearrange the equation of step 5 so that 𝑄 𝑠 𝑥1 = 𝑃(𝑠).

Convert the operators back to derivatives for the equation of step 6 to
Step 7
obtain the second-order differential equation.

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Example # 1 – Second-Order Circuits
Consider a more complicated 2 nd order circuit. Obtain the 2nd order
differential equation for vs. Use R = 1Ω, L1 = 1H and L2 = 2H.

𝒅 𝟐 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒊𝟐
Answer: vs = 𝟐 +𝟑 V
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

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Example # 2 – Second-Order Circuits
Find the differential equation for the current, i2, for the circuit shown.

𝒅𝒗𝒔 𝒅 𝟐 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒊𝟐
Answer: = +𝟕 + 𝟔𝒊𝟐 V
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

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Example # 3 – Second-Order Circuits
Find the differential equation for the voltage, v, for the circuit shown.

𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒗𝒔
Answer: + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟑
+ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒗 = + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒗𝒔
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

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Natural Response of Second-Order Circuits

• A 2nd order differential equation has the form:

• The complete response x(t) is given by:

• The natural response satisfies the unforced differential equation

when f(t) = 0.

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Natural Response of Second-Order Circuits

• The natural response of a circuit xn will satisfy the equation:

• The solution for a homogeneous 2nd order differential equation is

where A and s are to be determined.

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Natural Response of Second-Order Circuits
• Replacing the differential with the s-operator,

• The solution of the quadratic equation has two roots,

−𝑎1 ± 𝑎12 − 4𝑎2 𝑎0

𝑠1,2 =
2𝑎2

• The roots of the characteristic equation contain all the necessary

information in determining the character of the natural response.

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Example # 4 – Natural Response
Find the natural response of the current, i2, shown in the circuit.

Answer: 𝒊𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝟖𝒕 A

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Parallel RLC Circuits
• Consider the parallel RLC circuit.

• KCL at the top node of the circuit and differentiating it gives

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Parallel RLC Circuits
• Using the s-operator, we can obtain the equivalent
characteristic equation.

• Solving for the roots of the characteristic equation,

where 𝛼 is the damping coefficient or the Neper frequency

while 𝜔0 is the resonant frequency.

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Parallel RLC Circuits

• The damped resonant frequency, 𝜔𝑑 , is defined to be

• When 𝜔0 > 𝛼, the roots of the characteristic equation are

complex and can be expressed as

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Parallel RLC Circuits

• The roots of the characteristic equation assume three

possible conditions:

1. Two real and distinct roots when 𝜶𝟐 > 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is said to be overdamped.

2. Two real equal roots when 𝜶𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is critically damped.

3. Two complex roots when 𝜶𝟐 < 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is said to be underdamped.

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 𝟐 𝟐
Overdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are real
and distinct, the voltage response of a parallel RLC
circuit is said to be overdamped. The solution for the
voltage has the form:

where the constants A1 and A2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

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 𝟐 𝟐
Overdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the overdamped response, v(t), for parallel RLC
Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2, using
the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒗(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒗 𝟎 + = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨 𝟐

𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ ) 𝒊𝒄 (𝟎+ )
= = 𝒔𝟏 𝑨 𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑪
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, A1, and A2 to complete the
expression for v(t) for t ≥ 0.

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Example # 5 – Overdamped Response (Parallel)
For the circuit given, Vc(0+) = 12 V, and iL(0+) = 30 mA. Find (a) the
𝒅𝒗
initial current in each branch of the circuit, (b) the initial value of , and
𝒅𝒕
(c) the expression for v(t).

Answer: (a) 𝒊𝑳 𝟎+ = 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝑨, 𝒊𝒄 𝟎+ = −𝟗𝟎 𝒎𝑨;

𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ )
(b) = −𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑽/𝒔; (c) 𝐯(𝐭) = −𝟏𝟒𝒆−𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟐𝟔𝒆−𝟐𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝒅𝒕

Abayan, 2023 | Page 22

 𝟐 𝟐
Underdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are
complex, the voltage response of a parallel RLC circuit is
said to be underdamped. The solution for the voltage has
the form:

where

where the constants B1 and B2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 23

 𝟐 𝟐
Underdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the underdamped response, v(t), for parallel
RLC Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2,

using the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒗(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒗 𝟎+ = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑩𝟏

𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ ) 𝒊𝒄 (𝟎+ )
= = −𝜶𝑩𝟏 + 𝝎𝒅 𝑩𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑪
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, B1, and B2 to complete the
expression for v(t) for t ≥ 0.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 24

Example # 6 – Underdamped Response (Parallel)
For the circuit given, Vc(0+) = 0 V, and iL(0+) = -12.25 mA. Find (a) the
roots of the characteristic equation of the circuit, (b) the initial value of
𝒅𝒗
, and (c) the expression for v(t).
𝒅𝒕

Answer: (a) s1,2 = −200 ± j979.80 rad/s;

𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ )
(b) = 𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝑽/𝒔; (c) 𝐯 𝐭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒆−𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒕 sin 𝟗𝟕𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝒕 𝑽, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝒅𝒕

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 𝟐 𝟐
Critically Damped Voltage Response (𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are real
and equal, the voltage response of a parallel RLC circuit
is said to be critically damped. The solution for the
voltage has the form:

where the constants D1 and D2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 26

 𝟐 𝟐
Critically Damped Voltage Response (𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the critically damped response, v(t), for parallel
RLC Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2,

using the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒗(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒗 𝟎+ = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑫 𝟐

𝒅𝒗(𝟎+ ) 𝒊𝒄 (𝟎+ )
= = 𝑫𝟏 − 𝜶𝑫𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑪
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, D1, and D2 to complete the
expression for v(t) for t ≥ 0.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 27

Example # 7 – Critically Damped Response (Parallel)
For the circuit given, Vc(0+) = 0 V, and iL(0+) = -12.25 mA. Find (a) the
value of R that results in a critically damped voltage response, and
(b) the expression for v(t).

Answer: (a) R = 4000 Ω; (b) 𝐯 𝐭 = 𝟗𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕𝒆−𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

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Homework # 8 – Deadline: November 8, 2024

Solve 3 problems that are Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuits.

Solve 4 problems that are Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuits.
Solve 3 problems that are Critically Damped Parallel RLC
Circuits.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 29

Series RLC Circuits
• Consider the series RLC circuit.

• KVL around the loop of the circuit and differentiating it gives

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Series RLC Circuits
• Using the s-operator, we can obtain the equivalent
characteristic equation.

• Solving for the roots of the characteristic equation,

where 𝛼 is the damping coefficient or the Neper frequency

while 𝜔0 is the resonant frequency.

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Series RLC Circuits

• The damped resonant frequency, 𝜔𝑑 , is defined to be

• When 𝜔0 > 𝛼, the roots of the characteristic equation are

complex and can be expressed as

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Series RLC Circuits

• The roots of the characteristic equation assume three

possible conditions:

1. Two real and distinct roots when 𝜶𝟐 > 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is said to be overdamped.

2. Two real equal roots when 𝜶𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is critically damped.

3. Two complex roots when 𝜶𝟐 < 𝝎𝟐𝟎

• The circuit is said to be underdamped.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 33

 𝟐 𝟐
Overdamped Current Response (𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are real
and distinct, the voltage response of a series RLC circuit
is said to be overdamped. The solution for the voltage
has the form:

where the constants A1 and A2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 34

 𝟐 𝟐
Overdamped Current Response (𝜶 > 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the overdamped response, i(t), for series RLC
Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2, using
the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒊(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒊 𝟎+ = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐

𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ )
= = 𝒔𝟏 𝑨 𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, A1, and A2 to complete the
expression for i(t) for t ≥ 0.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 35

 𝟐 𝟐
Underdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are
complex, the voltage response of a series RLC circuit is
said to be underdamped. The solution for the voltage has
the form:

where

where the constants B1 and B2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 36

 𝟐 𝟐
Underdamped Voltage Response (𝜶 < 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the underdamped response, i(t), for series RLC
Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2,

using the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒊(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒊 𝟎+ = 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑩 𝟏

𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ ) 𝒗𝑳 (𝟎+ )
= = −𝜶𝑩𝟏 + 𝝎𝒅 𝑩𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, B1, and B2 to complete the
expression for i(t) for t ≥ 0.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 37

 𝟐 𝟐
Critically Damped Voltage Response (𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 )
When the roots of the characteristic equation are real
and equal, the voltage response of a series RLC circuit is
said to be critically damped. The solution for the voltage
has the form:

where the constants D1 and D2 are determined by

utilizing the initial conditions.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 38

 𝟐 𝟐
Critically Damped Voltage Response (𝜶 = 𝝎𝟎 )
Procedure in finding the critically damped response, i(t), for series
RLC Circuits are indicated as:

Step 1: Find the roots of the characteristic equation, s 1 and s2,

using the values of R, L, and C.
𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ )
Step 2: Find 𝒊(𝟎 ) and
+
using circuit analysis.
𝒅𝒕
Step 3: Find the values of A 1 and A2 by solving the following
equations:
𝒊 𝟎+ = 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑫 𝟐

𝒅𝒊(𝟎+ ) 𝑽𝑳 (𝟎+ )
= = 𝑫𝟏 − 𝜶𝑫𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Step 4: Substitute the values for s 1, s2, D1, and D2 to complete the
expression for i(t) for t ≥ 0.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 39

Example # 8 – Series RLC Circuits
The 0.1 uF capacitor in the circuit shown is charged to 100 V. At t = 0, the
capacitor is discharged through a series combination of a 100 mH
inductor and a 560-ohm resistor. Find (a) i(t) for t > 0 and (b) vc(t) for t > 0.

Answer: (a) 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟐𝒆−𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒕 sin 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑨, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎;

(b) 𝒗𝒄 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 cos 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟕 sin 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝒆−𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝑽, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

Abayan, 2023 | Page 40

Forced Response

The forced response of an RLC circuit will often be of the

same form as the forcing function.

Forcing Function Assumed Response

K A

Kt At + B

Kt2 At2 + Bt + C

Ksin(wt) Asin(wt) + Bcos(wt)

Ke-αt Ae-αt

Abayan, 2023 | Page 41

Complete Response of RLC Circuits
General Procedure:
1. Find the characteristic equation and the natural response.

I. Determine if the circuit is series or parallel. If the circuit

is neither a series nor parallel RLC, determine the
describing equation of capacitor voltage or inductor
current.
II. Obtain the characteristic equation. Use the standard
formulas for 𝜶 and 𝝎𝟎 for a series or parallel RLC circuit.
III. Find the roots of the characteristic equation.
IV. Determine the form of the natural response based on
the type of characteristic roots.

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Complete Response of RLC Circuits

2. Find the forced response where you should analyze the

circuit at t = ∞ to find xf = x(∞).

3. Find the initial conditions, x(0) and x’(0).

4. Find:
I. Find the total response, x(t) = xn + xf
II. Use the two initial conditions to solve for the two
unknowns in the total response.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 43

Example # 9 – Parallel RLC Circuits
The initial energy stored in the circuit is zero. At t = 0, a DC current
source of 24 mA is applied to the circuit. The value of the resistor is
𝒅𝒊𝑳
400Ω. Find (a) the initial value of iL, (b) the initial value of , (c) the roots
𝒅𝒕
of the characteristic equation, and (d) the numerical expression for iL(t)
when t ≥ 0.

𝒅𝒊𝑳 𝟎+
Answer: (a) 𝒊𝑳 = 𝟎 A; (b) = 𝟎 𝑨/𝒔; (c) 𝒔𝟏 = −𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔,
𝒅𝒕
𝒔𝟐 = −𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔; (d) 𝒊𝑳 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟑𝟐𝒆−𝟐𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟖𝒆−𝟖𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝒎𝑨

Abayan, 2023 | Page 44

Example # 10 – Series RLC Circuits
The switch in the circuit shown has been in position “a” for a long time.
𝒅𝒊 𝟎+
At t = 0, it moves to position “b”. Find (a) 𝒊(𝟎 ); (b) 𝒗𝒄 𝟎 ; (c)
+ +
; (d) the
𝒅𝒕
roots of the characteristic equation, and (e) 𝒊(𝒕) for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎.

𝒅𝒊𝑳 𝟎+
Answer: (a) 𝒊(𝟎 ) = 𝟎 A; (b) 𝒗𝒄 𝟎
+ +
= 𝟓𝟎 V; (c) = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨/𝒔;
𝒅𝒕
(d) 𝒔𝟏,𝟐 = −𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 ± 𝒋𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔; (e) 𝒊𝑳 𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕𝒆 −𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕
sin 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝒎𝑨

Abayan, 2023 | Page 45

Homework # 9 – Deadline: November 12, 2024

Solve 3 problems that are Overdamped Series RLC Circuits.

Solve 3 problems that are Underdamped Series RLC Circuits.
Solve 3 problems that are Critically Damped Series RLC Circuits.
Solve 1 circuit problem that contains three or more energy
storage elements.

Abayan, 2023 | Page 46

Second Long Quiz
Study for a Quiz on November 15, 2024

Coverage:

Capacitors Source-Free Response of RC Circuits

Inductors Source-Free Response of RL Circuits
Equivalent Capacitance Time Constants (RC and RL)
Equivalent Inductance Complete Response of RC Circuits
First-Order DE Complete Response of RL Circuits
Higher-Order DE Series and Parallel RLC Circuits
Complete Response of RLC Circuits

Abayan, 2023 | Page 47