LESSON 14- USE OF HIGH TEMPERATURE:

PASTEURIZATION
Topical Outline  Describe the importance of pre-treatments
1. Pasteurization, definition, importance and applied in processing specific food groups.
methods of pasteurization  Differentiate the types of pasteurization
2. Conditions when Pasteurization is allowed applied to heat labile foods.
for Use as Food Preservation Method  Explain scientifically the principle behind the
3. Steps in Milk Pasteurization use of pasteurization as a FPM for heat labile
4. Storage requirements of Pasteurized foods.
Products  Recognize the importance of proper storage
5. Pre-treatments used in processing foods- requirements of pasteurized products as a
Blanching, Sulfiting, Brining means to extend its shelf life.
Learning Outcomes:  Produce a shelf stable pasteurized product.
At the end of the lesson, the student
should be able to:

Introduction:

Pasteurization, heat-treatment process that destroys pathogenic microorganisms in certain foods

and beverages. It is named for the French scientist Louis Pasteur, who in the 1860s
demonstrated that abnormal fermentation of wine and beer could be prevented by heating
the beverages to about 57° C (135° F) for a few minutes. Pasteurization of milk, widely
practiced in several countries, notably the United States, requires temperatures of about 63° C (145°
F) maintained for 30 minutes or, alternatively, heating to a higher temperature, 72° C (162°
F), and holding for 15 seconds (and yet higher temperatures for shorter periods of time) and the milk
is immediately cooled to 5oC (41 F) or below. The times and temperatures are those determined
to be necessary to destroy the Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other more heat-resistant of the
non-spore-forming, disease-causing microorganisms found in milk. The treatment also destroys most
of the microorganisms that cause spoilage and so prolongs the storage time of food.

The temperature-time requirement for pasteurization was fixed as 61.7°C for 30 minutes on the basis
of destruction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which was considered as the most heat resistant
organism. Later, it was changed to 62.8°C for 30 minutes based on the time-temperature required
for destruction of Coxiella burnetii, which is more heat resistant than Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.

Pasteurization is a process in which certain packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and
fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and
extend shelf life. This process safeguards foods by destroying or inactivating organisms that contribute
to spoilage, including vegetative bacteria but not bacterial spores. Pasteurization is not intended to kill
all microorganisms in the food but it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens.

For the dairy industry, the terms "pasteurization," "pasteurized" and similar terms mean the process of
heating every particle of milk or milk product, in properly designed and operated equipment, to one of
the temperatures given in the following chart and held continuously at or above that temperature for
at least the corresponding specified time:
 Temperatur
Time Pasteurization Type
e
63ºC
30 minutes Vat Pasteurization
(145ºF)*
72ºC
15 seconds High temperature short time Pasteurization (HTST)
(161ºF)*
89ºC (191ºF) 1.0 second Higher-Heat Shorter Time (HHST)
90ºC (194ºF) 0.5 seconds Higher-Heat Shorter Time (HHST)
94ºC (201ºF) 0.1 seconds Higher-Heat Shorter Time (HHST)
96ºC (204ºF) 0.05 seconds Higher-Heat Shorter Time (HHST)
100ºC
0.01seconds Higher-Heat Shorter Time (HHST)
(212ºF)
138ºC
2.0 seconds Ultra Pasteurization (UP)
(280ºF)

*If the fat content of the milk product is 10percent or more, or if it contains added sweeteners, or if it is
concentrated (condensed), the specified temperature shall be increased by 3ºC (5ºF). Eggnog shall be
heated to at least the following temperature and time specifications:
Temperature Time Pasteurization Type
69ºC (155ºF) 30 minutes Vat Pasteurization
80ºC (175ºF) 25 seconds High temperature short time Pasteurization (HTST)
83ºC (180ºF) 15 seconds High temperature short time Pasteurization (HTST)

The original method of pasteurization was vat pasteurization, which heats milk or other liquid
ingredients in a large tank for at least 30 minutes. It is now used primarily in the dairy industry for
preparing milk for making starter cultures in the processing of cheese, yogurt, buttermilk and for
pasteurizing some ice cream mixes.

The most common method of pasteurization in the United States today is High Temperature Short
Time (HTST) pasteurization, which uses metal plates and hot water to raise milk temperatures to at
least 161° F for not less than 15 seconds, followed by rapid cooling. Higher Heat Shorter Time
(HHST) is a process similar to HTST pasteurization, but it uses slightly different equipment and higher
temperatures for a shorter time. For a product to be considered Ultra Pasteurized (UP), it must be
heated to not less than 280° for two seconds. UP pasteurization results in a product with longer shelf
life but still requiring refrigeration.

Another method, aseptic processing, which is also known as Ultra High Temperature (UHT),
involves heating the milk using commercially sterile equipment and filling it under aseptic conditions
into hermetically sealed packaging. The product is termed "shelf stable" and does not need
refrigeration until opened. All aseptic operations are required to file their processes with the Food and
Drug Administration's "Process Authority." There is no set time or temperature for aseptic processing;
the Process Authority establishes and validates the proper time and temperature based on the
equipment used and the products being processed.
Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization involves heating milk or cream to 138°to 150° C (280°
to 302° F) for one or two seconds. Packaged in sterile, hermetically sealed containers, UHT milk may
be stored without refrigeration for months. Ultrapasteurized milk and cream are heated to at
least 138° C for at least two seconds, but because of less stringent packaging they must be
refrigerated. Shelf life is extended to 60–90 days. After opening, spoilage times for both UHT and
ultrapasteurized products are similar to those of conventionally pasteurized products.

Objective of pasteurization:

 Public health aspect: Safe for human consumption by destroying all bacteria that may be
harmful to health.

 Keeping quality aspect: Improve the keeping quality – destroyed some undesirable
enzymes and many spoilage bacteria.
Significance of Pasteurization:

Proper pasteurization is necessary for the following reasons:

1. The chief objective of milk pasteurization is to destroy pathogenic bacteria that could
have a public health concern. By destroying these microorganisms, the product
becomes safe for public consumption.
2. Secondly, pasteurization eliminates destructive bacteria and enzymes that could cause
spoilage of the product. This leads to the prolonged shelf life of the milk.
3. There is a need to ensure that the product can keep for longer periods without
expensive storage equipment. Pasteurization will eliminate spoilage bacteria and
enzymes and extend the shelf life of the product.

CONDITIONS WHEN PASTEURIZATION IS ALLOWED FOR USE IN FOOD PRESERVATION:

1. When a more vigorous heat treatment would harm the quality of the product.
2. When the main aim is to kill only the pathogenic microorganisms.
3. When the main spoilage organisms are not very heat resistant, like yeasts and molds in fruit
juices and pickled products.
4. When any surviving spoilage organisms will be taken cared of by additional preservation
methods, such as the chilling of market milk.
5. When competing organisms are to be killed by supplementary heat treatments as in
pasteurization of milk for cheese making.

Milk Pasteurization:

Milk pasteurization is the process of heating milk (or milk product) to a predetermined
temperature for a specified period without re-contamination during the entire process.

The predetermined temperature usually depends on the heat resistance of spoilage microorganisms
that the pasteurization program is targeting to destroy.

Methods Used in Milk Pasteurization

1. Low-Temperature Long Time (LTLT) pasteurization

 The temperatures used for pasteurization are reduced to 63°C and held for 30
minutes.
 The prolonged holding period alters the structure of the milk proteins making them better
suited for making yogurt.
 This method is best for batch pasteurization where the milk is held in a jacketed vat for
effective pasteurization.
 There are many designs of batch pasteurizers in the market that are suitable for both
domestic and commercial use.
2. High-Temperature Short Time (HTST) Pasteurization- Continuous method
 This type of pasteurization is also known as flash pasteurization.
 Flash pasteurization involves heating milk to 71.7°C for 15 seconds to
kill Coxiella burnetii, which is the most heat-resistant pathogen in raw milk.
 Since it is technically impossible to bring the milk to that exact temperature, it is always
safe to work with a range of temperatures. To be safe, you can heat the milk to
between 72°C to 74°C for 15 to 20 seconds.
 This will ensure that the milk is heated uniformly to the required temperature.
 This method is most suitable in continuous pasteurization systems.
 Flash pasteurized milk will keep for between 16 and 21 days. For commercial reasons,
some manufacturers intentionally reduce the number of days to push the products out of
the shelves.

3. Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) Pasteurization

 This is a completely closed pasteurization method. The product is never exposed even for
a fraction of a second during the entire process.
 It involves heating milk or cream to between 135°C to 150°C for one to two seconds,
then chilling it immediately and aseptically packaging it in a hermetic (air-tight) container
for storage.
 Despite the risk of Millard browning, UHT pasteurization remains the most popular milk
preservation method for safe and stable milk.

Steps of Pasteurization
1. Milk chilling
 Chilling is not a pasteurization process but it is a necessary step when dealing with large
volumes of milk.
 Milk leaves the cow’s udder at temperatures above the ambient, which encourages rapid
bacterial multiplication that speeds up spoilage.
 However, reducing the temperatures to between 2° C to 5° C arrests bacterial growth
and metabolism.
 This provides a head start at keeping the quality before proper pasteurization
commences.
2. Pre-heating (regeneration) and Standardization Stage
 After bulking, the chilled milk is heated to about 40°C to facilitate easy separation of
butterfat during standardization.
  The system uses regenerative heating, i.e., it uses the heat of the already pasteurized
milk to heat up the incoming chilled milk. The chilled milk, in a counter-current flow, cools
down the pasteurized milk.
 The system uses regenerative heating, i.e., it uses the heat of the already pasteurized
milk to heat up the incoming chilled milk. The chilled milk, in a counter-current flow, cools
down the pasteurized milk.
 The purpose of standardization is to obtain a product with uniform content of butter-fat.
3. Clarification stage
 Clarification is essential for removing all foreign matter from the product.
 Large solid particles are removed by straining the milk through tubular metallic filters.
 A centrifugal clarifier (not the one used for standardization) is used to remove all soil and
sediments from milk.
 The filters, usually fitted in parallel twins permits continuous processing as one can be
cleaned while the other is running.
 Clean the filters regularly (between 2 to 10 operational hours depending on the level of
dirt) to avoid the growth of bacteria.
4. Standardization stage
 It is important to standardize milk fat to ensure that you end up with a product of
consistent quality in the market. Different consumers prefer different products.
 There are customers who will consume skim milk only while there are those who will
take low-fat milk. There are those who will take standardized milk while there are those
who prefer high-fat milk.
 Standardization is necessary to ensure that all the customers are catered for. Again, it is
during the process of standardization that you get to separate the butterfat that is used
for making cream and other fat-based products such as butter and ghee.
5. Homogenization stage
 Homogenization is a physical process of breaking down the milk fat globules into
tiny droplets to discourage cream separation.
 Tiny droplets of fat do not rise in a milk column since reducing their sizes also increases
their density in the milk.
 A milk homogenizer working at between 100 to 170 bars splits all the fat globules into
very tiny droplets that increase the level of integration of the fat in the milk.
 As a result, the milk fat remains uniformly distributed in the milk.
6. Heating section
 Utilizes heat from steam to raise the temperatures of the milk from about 60°C to the
required 72°C that is effective to kill the Clostridium botulinum spores.
 The steam exchanges heat with the milk across the PHE plates in a counter-
current motion.
 In the end, if this section, there is a temperature sensor, which controls the flow diversion
valve.
 Any milk that does not attain the required temperature is diverted back to the heating
section until it attains the required temperatures.
7. Holding section
 After heating, milk flows into the holding tubes whose lengths have been calibrated with
the milk flow rate to ensure that milk takes at least 16 seconds in the tubes. All the milk
must maintain the required pasteurization temperatures at the end of the tubes.
 In case of a breach, a sensor will trigger the flow diversion valve to take the milk back to
the heating section to bring the milk to the required temperature.
 Once the milk has attained the required temperatures at the end of the holding tubes,
milk flows back to the regeneration section to heat the incoming chilled milk while in
itself being cooled down to about 30°C.
8. Cooling/chilling section
After regenerative cooling of pasteurized milk, it moves to the cooling section of the PHE
where chilled water/PHE coolant lowers the temperature of pasteurized milk to 4°C.
The chilled milk is then pumped to the packaging machines for aseptic packaging and
subsequent storage in the cold room.

Various methods of Pasteurization:

1. Batch pasteurization/low temperature long time pasteurization (LTLT) or low

temperature holding pasteurization ( LTH )-
  Water jacketed type
 Water spray type
 Coil vat type
The batch method uses a vat pasteurizer which consists of a jacketed vat surrounded
by either circulating water with added steam or heating coils of hot water or direct
steam. In the vat the milk is heated and held throughout the holding period while being
agitated. The milk may be cooled in the vat or removed hot after the holding time is
completed for every particle. As a modification, the milk may be partially heated in
tubular or plate heater before entering the vat. This method is used extensively in the
ice cream industry as it allows for dissolution and blending of ingredients during the
heating stage. Pls refer to the illustration below.

2. High temperature short time pasteurization (HTST) or continuous flow

 Tubular heat exchanger
 Plate heat exchanger
Cold raw milk at 4° C in a constant level tank is drawn into the regenerator section of
pasteurizer. Here it is warmed to approximately 57° C - 68° C by heat given up by hot
pasteurized milk flowing in a counter current direction on the opposite side of thin,
stainless-steel plates. The raw milk, still under suction, passes through a positive
displacement timing pump which delivers it under positive pressure through the rest
of the HTST system.
The raw milk is forced through the heater section where hot water on opposite sides
of the plates heat milk to a temperature of at least 72° C. The milk, at pasteurization
temperature and under pressure, flows through the holding tube where it is held for
at least 16 sec. The maximum velocity is governed by the speed of the timing pump,
diameter and length of the holding tube, and surface friction. After passing
temperature sensors of an indicating thermometer and a recorder-controller at
the end of the holding tube, milk passes into the flow diversion device (FDD). The
FDD assumes a forward-flow position if the milk passes the recorder-controller at the
preset cut-in temperature (>72° C). The FDD remains in normal position which is in
diverted-flow if milk has not achieved preset cut-in temperature. The improperly
heated milk flows through the diverted flow line of the FDD back to the raw
milk constant level tank. Properly heated milk flows through the forward flow part
of the FDD to the pasteurized milk regenerator section where it gives up heat to the
 raw product and in turn is cooled to approximately 32° C - 9° C. The warm milk
passes through the cooling section where it is cooled to 4° C or below by coolant on
the opposite sides of the thin, stainless-steel plates. The cold, pasteurized milk
passes through a vacuum breaker at least 12 inches above the highest raw milk in
the HTST system then on to a storage tank filler for packaging.

3. Vacuum pasteurization- (Vacreation)- denotes pasteurization of milk/cream under

reduced pressure by direct steam. This removes feed and other volatile flavors from
cream, and to pasteurize it for butter making.
 4. Flash pasteurization also called HTST
A method used for perishable beverages like fruit and vegetable juices, beer, and
dairy products.
It is done prior to filling into containers in order to kill spoilage micro.
The liquid moves in a controlled, continuous flow while subjected to temperatures of
71.5 C ( 160 F ) to 74 C ( 165 F) for about 15-30 sec.
This is widely used for fruit juices.

5. Ultra high temperature treatment (UHT) or ultra heat treatment-

2 types:
 Direct- milk is treated by directly injecting/exposure of the product to steam
under pressure, then filled aseptically in special cartons which are then heat
sealed.
 Indirect- milk is sterilized in heat exchangers.
6. Ultra pasteurization (Uperisation)
This process is one of the recent inventions of the milk industry.
This was developed in Switzerland.
Milk is heated with a direct steam up to 150 C for a fraction of a second.

Different Types of Thermal Processing Methods:

Initially, the target organism was the bacterium that caused tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis or M.
tuberculosis). In the 1950’s, the minimum pasteurization temperature was increased to destroy a
slightly more heat-resistant organism that was associated with raw milk, Coxiella burnetti, which
causes Q-fever.

 Thermization: Heat the milk to between 57°C to 68°C and hold for 15 minutes.
Thermization targets pathogenic bacteria while leaving the good bacteria in the product.
The low temperatures do not alter the structure and taste of the milk.
 Batch pasteurization: Also known as low-temperature long time (LTLT) pasteurization.
Heat the milk to 63°C for 30 minutes. The extended holding time causes the alteration in
the milk protein structure and taste.
 Flash pasteurization: Also known as high-temperature short time (HTST)
pasteurization. Heat the milk to between 72°C to 74°C for 15 to 20 seconds.
  Ultra-high temperature (UHT) pasteurization: Heat the milk to between 135°C to
140°C for 2 to 4 seconds. The extreme heat targets Coxiella burnetii, which causes Q-
fever. The heat kills all the vegetative forms of bacteria and the milk can survive for 9
months.
 Canned sterilization: This is a wet treatment of canned milk products in
an autoclave/specialized treatment chamber. Heat to between 115°C to 121°C for 10 to
20 minutes.

Image Source: Grade “A” Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) established by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).

OTHER PROCESSES USED TO PASTEURIZED FOODS:

1. Ultra Pasteurization ( UP )- This involves the heating of milk and cream to at least 280 F ( 138C)
for at least 2 sec. and must be refrigerated. The shelf life of the milk is extended 60-90 days.

2. Steam Pasteurization- This uses a chamber that exposes the beef to pressurized steam for
approximately 6-8 sec. The steam raises the surface temperature of the carcass to 190 to 200 F ( 88 -
93 C ).

3. Irradiation Pasteurization- Foods such as poultry, red meat, spices, and fruits and vegetables are
exposed to small amounts of gamma rays. This process effectively controls vegetative bacteria and
parasitic foodborne pathogens and increases the storage time of foods.

Factors to measure the efficacy of Pasteurization:

 1.Temperature of pasteurization
 2. Holding time
 3. Total numbers of bacteria
 4. Proportion of the total microbial load that are spore formers of thermoduric microorganisms
Adequacy of pasteurization can be measured by conducting the phosphatase test.
Phosphatase is a natural enzyme found in milk and its thermal resistance is greater
than that of pathogens over the ranges of time and temperature recognized for proper
pasteurization. The phosphatase test developed is based on the principle that alkaline
phosphates has the ability, at proper temperature and pH conditions to liberate the
phenol from disodium phenyl phosphate substrate. The liberated phenol is determined
by reacting it with 2-6 dichloroquinone-choromide(cqc) and the colorimetric
 measurement of the amount of indophenol blue formed. Pasteurized milk must give a
negative test result for phosphatase.

Non- Conventional Methods of Pasteurization:

1. Microwave heating- only effective on low acid foods and can be used in a continous and batched
process.
2. Ohmic heating- involves passing of electrical pulse through food via charged electrodes. The
resistance to electrical flow produces heat which pasteurizes the food. This is applied to liquid
foods and foods with high moisture content like fruits.
3. High Pressure Processing- High hydrostatic pressure pasteurization is a non-thermal process. It
relies on high water pressure that is applied isostatically to the package food product up to 1000
Mpa using a specially designed pressure vessel to obtain microbiologically safe food products.
4. Pulsed Electric Fields- uses high voltages of electricity ( > 20 KV) that is applied to food in very
short pulses lasting micro seconds. The electrical pulses interfere with the metabolic processes of
the microorganisms and kills them rendering the food safe for human consumption.

The choice of pasteurization method depends on several factors which may not be limited to:

1. intended purpose of the pasteurized milk

2. access to sophisticated equipment
3. volume of milk to be pasteurized
4. target microorganisms

STORAGE REQUIREMENTS FOR PASTEURIZED PRODUCTS:

Pasteurization destroys disease-causing bacteria and extends the shelf life of milk. However,
pasteurized milk can readily spoil and could cause foodborne illness if not properly protected and
handled.

Ideal storage temperatures for milk and dairy products are 34-38°F. Under ideal refrigeration,
most pasteurized milk will remain fresh for 2-5 days after its sell-by date. Once opened, pasteurized
milk should be used as soon as possible for best quality and taste.

Once the package is opened the onset of souring of any milk not used immediately will still be delayed
for some hours if it is re-placed in the refrigerator, especially if it is retained in the original package.
When the consumer has no access to a refrigerator it is usually necessary to use the milk on the day of
purchase.

Refrigeration is the single most important factor in maintaining the safety of milk. By law, Grade A milk
must be maintained at a temperature of 45 °F or below. Bacteria in milk will grow minimally below 45
°F. However, temperatures well below 40 °F are necessary to protect the milk’s quality. It is critical
that these temperatures be maintained through warehousing, distribution, delivery and storage. The
cooler refrigerated milk is kept, the longer it lasts and the safer it is. As the product is allowed to warm,
the bacteria grow more rapidly. Properly refrigerated, milk can withstand about two weeks’ storage.

PRE-TREATMENTS OF FOODS PRIOR TO HEAT PROCESSING:

Heat Processing Methods:
1. Heat processing using Steam or water- Blanching, Pasteurization, Heat Sterilization
(Canning)
2. Heat Processing using Hot Air – Dehydration, Baking and Roasting
3. Heat Processing Using Hot Oils- Frying
4. Heat Processing by Direct and Radiated Energy- Dielectric, Ohmic, Infrared
5. Processing by Removal of Heat-Use of Low temperature (Refrigeration, Chilling, Freezing,
use of controlled and Modified Atmosphere Packaging)

1. BLANCHING:

 This denotes exposure of foods to boiling water temperature for a short period of time to
inactivate enzymes( peroxidase) and partially reduce microbial population.
  This is used to lower enzymatic activity in vegetables and fruits. Peroxidase is the most
widely distributed heat resistant enzyme. Enzymes which cause undesirable changes in
fruits and vegetables are; lipoxygenase, polyphenol oxidase, polygalactouranase,
chlorophyllase
 A pre-treatment method prior to the processing of raw agricultural materials( fruits /
vegetables).
 It is used in combination with peeling and or cleaning
 This softens vegetable tissues thus facilitating filling into containers and removes air from
intercellular spaces

Purpose of Blanching:
1. Soften vegetable tissues to facilitate proper filling into cans
2. Removal of air from the intercellular spaces of fruits and vegetables
3. Helps in producing a head space vacuum in cans
Main Objectives of Blanching:
1. Inactivation of enzymes
2. Reduction of microbial contamination
3. Reduction of the volume
4. Air removal
5. Preheating
6. Cleaning
Methods of Blanching:
1. Steam Blanching- steam exposure for 30-90 sec
2. Hot water blanching- dipping in boiling water for 1-5 minutes
a. Steam blanching results in higher nutrient retention than hot water blanching.
b. After blanching, cooling is by means of cold air or cold water sprays.
Steam Blanchers ( Pls. see illustration below)
 Specific for foods with a large area of cut surfaces
 Mesh conveyor carries food through a steam atmosphere in a tunnel, typically 15 m X
1-1.5 m.
 Water sprays at the inlet and outlet to condense escaping steam
 Food enter & leave blancher through rotary valves or hydrostatic seals
Batch Fluidized-bed blanchers :
 Mixture of air & steam
 Fluidizes & heats product simultaneously
Advantages :
Faster, more uniform heating
Good mixing of product
Reduction of effluent volume
Shorter processing times
Smaller losses of vitamins & other soluble heat sensitive components

Hot-Water Blanchers:
 Holds food in hot water ( 70-100 C) for a specified time
 Then move to a dewatering-cooling section

Pipe Blanchers:
 A continuous insulated metal pipe fitted with feed & discharge ports
 Hot water is re-circulated through pipe & food
 Large capacity while occupying a small floor space.
IQB-system ( Individual Quick Blanching)-
 First Stage- Heating stage
Food is heated ( sufficiently at high temperature) in a single layer to inactivate enzymes
 Second stage- ( adiabatic holding)
A deep bed of food is held for sufficient time
 Cooling stage- fog spray to saturate the cold air with moisture
 Nutrient losses during steam blanching are reduced by exposing the food to warm air ( 65
C )and preliminary drying operation ( pre-conditioning)
 Surface moisture evaporates & surfaces then absorb condensing steam during IQB.
 Pre-conditioning +IQB reduces nutrient losses by 81% for green beans, 75% for Brussels
sprouts, 61% for peas & 53% for lima beans. No reduction in the yield of blanched food.
 Complete inactivation of peroxidase & minimum loss in quality ( retention of 76-85% of
ascorbic acid)

EFFECT OF BLANCHING ON FOODS

1. Nutrients

 Some minerals, water-soluble vitamins and other water-soluble components are lost during
blanching

 Losses of vitamins mostly by leaching, thermal destruction and oxidation

 Nutrient loss depends on:

Maturity and variety

Methods of preparation( cutting, slicing, or dicing)
Surface area to volume ratio of the pieces
Method of blanching
Time and temperature of blanching ( lower vitamin losses at HTST)
Method of cooling

2. Color and Flavor

 Brightens the color of foods
 Sodium carbonate ( 0.124% w/w) or calcium oxide added to blanch water ( protects
chlorophyll and retain the color of green vegetables
  Increase pH may increase losses of ascorbic acid
 Enzymatic browning of cut apples and potatoes is prevented ( holding the food in dilute
brine, 2% w/w, prior to blanching)

3. Texture
 Soften texture of vegetables( facilitates proper filling into cans)
 Calcium chloride ( 1-2%) added to blanch water form insoluble calcium pectate complexes
that helps in maintaining firmness of the tissues.

2. SULFITING- The practice of purposely adding sulfur dioxide at any point in the winemaking process.
Sulfites occur naturally in all wines to some extent. Sulfites are commonly introduced to arrest
fermentation at a desired time, and may also be added to wine as preservatives to prevent spoilage
and oxidation at several stages of the winemaking. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) protects wine not only from
oxidation, but also from bacteria. [ Sulfites are often used as preservatives in dried fruits,
preserved radish, and dried potato products. Sulfites are used as a food preservative or enhancer.
They may come in various forms, such as;

 Sulfur dioxide, which is not a sulfite, but a closely related chemical oxide
 Potassium bisulfite or potassium metabisulfite
Sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite or sodium sulfite

Recommended blanching Time for Vegetables

3. BRINING- is a process in which meat, fish or poultry is soaked in a salt water solution similar to
marination before cooking. The raw food absorbs extra liquid and salt, resulting in a juicier and a more
flavorful final dish. The salt in brine denatures the meat’s proteins to allow the cells to retain more
moisture. The traditional brine is made from a ratio of 1 cup of coarse salt to 1 gallon of water. For
iodized table salt, you may use 30 gms per liter( or quart) for a weak brine, and if using table salt,
about 2 tablespoons and for Kosher salt, its 4 Tbsp.

- Brining method may be done in two ways, namely; wet brine and dry brine.
- Wet brine - the raw food is immersed or soaked in the brine.
- Dry Brine - coarse salt is just applied/rubbed on the surface of the raw food then
allowing it to rest in the refrigerator for 24-72 hours prior to cooking.
- Dry brining is a simple process of salting and resting food before cooking it. Dry brining is the
preferred method for seasoning both large and small pieces of meat, poultry, and sometimes
seafood.
- Through the process of osmosis and diffusion, salt and water from the brine are absorbed by the
meat. The salt re-shape and dissolve muscle proteins, and thus this forms a gel that traps and
holds onto water from the brine which then results to a juicier meat. Along with producing juicier
meat, dry brining also helps in achieving a better surface browning, crunchier crust on steaks and
beef roasts, and crispier poultry and pork skin. To produce extra-crispy poultry and pork skin, mix
in a little baking powder with kosher salt and sprinkle over the surface of the poultry skin. The
slightly alkaline baking powder raises the skin’s pH levels, which allows proteins to break down
more efficiently, giving a crisper, more evenly browned results. Simultaneously it combines with
the bird’s natural juices forming carbon dioxide gas that produces a layer of tiny bubbles. These
bubbles increase the skin’s surface area allowing it to develop c crunchy texture once cooked.

For a sweet brine, mix 1 cup (227 gms) of brown sugar plus 1 cup of salt per gallon of water.
Cut the salt and sugar by half if you need only half gallon of brine.

The basic steps in brining:

1. Boil 1 gallon water for every cup salt. Add salt and stir to dissolve.
2. Add herbs, spices, fruits( optional ingredients). Cool and refrigerate the brine.
3. Soak raw food in the cooled brine for about 1 hour or depending on the size of the food. For
shrimp, 30 min, whole chicken-4-5 hours, Turkey-12 hrs, Pork Tenderloin-12 hrs., and Cornish
Hen- 1-2 hrs, Thin fish fillets- 10 min, Chicken pieces- 2 hours.