2024-

ERING METALLURGY-STRUCTURE OF METALS

2025

ENGINEERING
METALLURGY-
STRUCTURE OF
METALS
Dr. HAIDER MAHDI LIETH

College of Engineering
Materials Engineering department
2024-2025 0
2024-2025 ENGINEERING METALLURGY-STRUCTURE OF METALS

Syllabus:

Chapter One : Structure of Metals

Chapter Two : Formation of Alloys and Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams.

Chapter Three : Plain Carbon Steel.

Chapter Four : Heat Treatment of Plain Carbon Steel.

References:

1. The Science and Engineering of Materials ,Sixth Edition by Donald R. Askeland ,

Pradeep P. Fulay , and Wendelin J. Wright.

2. Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction Seventh Edition by William D.

Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch.

3. Heat Treatment of Metals Volume one ,by J.L. Smith ,G.M. Russel , and S.C. Bhatia.

4. ‫بيللي ترجمة حسين باقر رحمة هلال‬. ‫مبادئ هندسة المعادن والمواد تأليف ف‬

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are
some intermediates. In addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more of
the above three basic material classes. A brief explanation of these material types and
representative characteristics is offered next .Another classification is advanced materials
those used in high-technology applications— viz. semiconductors, biomaterials, smart
materials, and nano engineered materials

Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and
their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner and in comparison to the ceramics and
polymers, are relatively dense With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials
are relatively stiff and strong , yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of
deformation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture , which accounts for their
widespread use in structural applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of non-
localized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many
properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are
extremely good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not transparent to visible light;

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a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (viz.,
Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic
materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),
silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the
traditional ceramics those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement,
and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and
strong, stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals .In addition,
ceramics are typically very hard. On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack
ductility), and are highly susceptible to fracture These materials are typically insulative to
the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities, and are more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With
regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque ,and
some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (viz. O,N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often
chain-like in nature that have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and
familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate
(PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities ,
whereas their mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and
ceramic materials they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types. However,
on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per mass
basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are
extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into
complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large
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number of environments. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring
materials are also considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However,
most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites.
One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers
are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass
fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but
also weak and flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible,
and ductile. In addition, it has a low density .Another of these technologically important
materials is the “carbon fiber reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”) composite carbon fibers
that are embedded within a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass
fiber-reinforced materials ,yet they are more expensive. The CFRP composites are used in
some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g.,
bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards)
Mechanical properties:
there are many mechanical properties ,below some of them:

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a) Strength :It is defined as resistance by which the material opposes the deformation. The
maximum load withstood by a specimen of the metal before failure is called ultimate
strength. The load acting per unit area of specimen is called stress and the deformation
produced is called strain.
b) Stiffness: Is defined as its resistance to elastic deformation or it’s the slop of the hock’s
law .a material which undergoes a slight deformation under the action of load is said to
possess high degree of n stiffness.
c) Hardness: It is the property of which material resist the penetration of other bodies into
it. Hardness measurement can be defined as macro-, micro- or nano- scale according to the
forces applied and displacements obtained .
d) Toughness: It is the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact load ,or its the
area under the stress-strain curve .tough materials can withstand large deformation
together with high stress without fracture.
The Periodic Table:-The periodic table contains valuable information about specific
elements and can also help identify trends in atomic size, melting point, chemical
reactivity, and other properties. The familiar periodic table is constructed in accordance
with the electronic structure of the elements. Not all elements in the periodic table are
naturally occurring. Rows in the periodic table correspond to quantum shells, or principal
quantum numbers. Columns typically refer to the number of electrons in the outermost s
and p energy levels and correspond to the most common valence. In engineering, we are
mostly concerned with

(a) Polymers (plastics) (primarily based on carbon, which appears in Group 4B)

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(b) Ceramics (typically based on combinations of many elements appearing in Groups 1

through 5B, and such elements as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen); and(c) Metallic materials
(typically based on elements in Groups 1, 2 and transition metal elements).

Atoms form bonds with other atoms in order to have a full outer shell of electrons
like the noble gases. If an atom has too few or too many valence electrons it will have to
gain, lose, or share those outer electrons with another atom in order to become “happy” or
in chemistry terms, more stable.

There are many types of chemical bonds that can form, however the 3 main types
are: ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. You must become familiar with how they work
and the differences between the 3 types.

I. Ionic bonding: Model 1 is a description of what chemists call ionic bonding. Ionic
bonding occurs strictly between metal and nonmetal atoms. In ionic bonding some of the
valence electrons of a metal atom are transferred to a nonmetal atom so that each atom
ends up with a noble gas configuration. Usually one, two, or three electrons are transferred
from one atom to another. This transfer of an electron causes the metal atom to have a net
positive charge (+) and the nonmetal atom to have a net negative charge (-). The individual
atoms in ionic solids are referred to as ions because of their charges. These opposite
charges are attracted to one another.
On the right is a drawing of a chunk of salt, NaCl, a very common ionic substance. Notice
how the sodium and chloride ions alternate throughout the structure. The positive and
negative ions alternating in three dimensions make the solid quite strong because of their
strong attractions to one another. The sodium ion is written Na+ and the chloride ion is
written Cl-. When ionic solids are placed in contact with water, they dissolve. They remain
ions, with charges, but now the individual ions are surrounded by water molecules and
distributed throughout the water. Once dissolved, ionic compounds will conduct
electricity.

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II. Covalent Bonding: Model 2a represents bonding that is referred to by chemists as

covalent bonding. The valence electrons are shared between atoms, such that the electrons
are attracted to two nuclei. Non-metal atoms will form covalent bonds with each other. In
Model 2a, two fluorine atoms form a stable F2 molecule in which each atom has an octet
of valence electrons by sharing a pair of electrons.
Notice in Model 2b that the molecules themselves are not connected by covalent bonds to
one another, but that the atoms are connected into small units, called molecules, by
covalent bonds. Thus, molecular covalent substances consist of a large group of individual
molecules. Note that whenever we are talking about molecules in chemistry, we are
referring to covalently bonded groups of atoms. Molecular covalent substances tend to be
liquids, gases or soft solids. This is because the individual molecules have more freedom
to move within the substance. Covalently bonded atoms can share two pairs of electrons
(double bond) or three pairs of electrons (triple bond). For instance, oxygen in air does not
exist as a single atom. Model 3 shows two oxygen atoms sharing 2 valence electrons each
to form O2. All the macromolecules that comprise the human body (DNA, carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins) are covalently bonded. Model 3b shows a typical saturated and
unsaturated fat molecule. Covalently bonded molecules can form very large and complex
molecular structures because of all the combinations and bonds that can be made to a few
central atoms such as carbon.
In fact, organic chemistry is an entire branch of chemistry that focuses solely on these
large, carbon based molecules (and is a dreaded class taken by most science majors).

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III. Metallic Bonding: Model 4 is referred to as metallic bonding. In the metallic bond,
metal atoms achieve a more stable configuration by sharing the electrons in its outer shell
with many other metal atoms. The valence electrons in metals are not tightly bound in the
nucleus and each atom in a metal contributes all the electrons in its valence shell to all
other atoms in the structure. The electrons then form a sort of “sea of electrons” around the
atoms. Thus, each atom becomes essentially positive in charge, having lost some electrons.
The atoms in turn are attracted to the negatively charged "sea". Therefore, the individual
atoms can "slip" over one another yet remain firmly held together by the electrostatic
forces exerted by the electrons. This is why most metals can be hammered into thin sheets
(malleable) or drawn into thin wires (ductile). When electricity is applied, the electrons
move freely between atoms, and a current flows.
In Model 4b is an artist's rendering of a block of iron, Fe, atoms. The "sea of electrons" is
not visible.

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IV. Van der Waals Bonding :

The origin of van der Waals forces between atoms and molecules is quantum mechanical
in nature and a meaningful discussion can be done later. We present here a simplified
picture. If two electrical charges +q and -q are separated by a distance d, the dipole
moment is defined as q x d. Atoms are electrically neutral. Also, the centers of the positive
charge (nucleus) and negative charge (electron cloud) coincide. Therefore, a neutral atom
has no dipole moment. When a neutral atom is exposed to an internal or external electric
field, the atom may become polarized (i.e., the centers of positive and negative charges
separate). This creates or induces a dipole moment .In some molecules, the dipole moment
does not have to be induced it exists by virtue of the direction of bonds and the nature of
atoms. These molecules are known as polarized molecules. An example of such a
molecule that has a permanently built-in dipole moment is water

In water, electrons in the oxygen tend to concentrate away from the hydrogen. The
resulting charge difference permits the molecule to be weakly bonded to other water
molecules.

CRYSTALSTRUCTURES

Solid materials may be classified according to the regularity with which atoms or ions are
arranged with respect to one another. A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances; that is, long-range
order exists, such that upon solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a
repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor
atoms. All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystalline

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structures under normal solidification conditions. For those that do not crystallize, this
long-range atomic order is absent; these noncrystalline or amorphous materials are
discussed later. Some of the properties of crystalline solids depend on the crystal
structure of the material, the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially
arranged.

There is an extremely large number of different crystal structures all having long range
atomic order; these vary from relatively simple structures for metals to exceedingly
complex ones, as displayed by some of the ceramic and polymeric materials

Figure 1.6 For the face centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation, (b) a reduced sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

UNIT CELLS

The atomic order in crystalline solids indicates that small groups of atoms form a
repetitive pattern. Thus, in describing crystal structures, it is often convenient to subdivide
the structure into small repeat entities called unit cells. Unit cells for most crystal
structures are parallelepipeds or prisms having three sets of parallel faces; one is drawn
within the aggregate of spheres (Figure 1.6 c), which in this case happens to be a cube. A
unit cell is chosen to represent the symmetry of the crystal structure, wherein all the atom
positions in the crystal may be generated by translations of the unit cell integral distances
along each of its edges. Thus, the unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of
the crystal structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom
positions within Convenience usually dictates that parallelepiped corners coincide with

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centers of the hard sphere atoms. Furthermore, more than a single unit cell may be chosen
for a particular crystal structure; however, we generally use the unit cell having the highest
level of geometrical symmetry.

Number of Atoms per Unit Cell Each unit cell contains a specific number of lattice points.
When counting the number of lattice points belonging to each unit cell, we must recognize
that, like atoms, lattice points may be shared by more than one unit cell. A lattice point at a
corner of one unit cell is shared by seven adjacent unit cells (thus a total of eight cells);
only one-eighth of each corner belongs to one particular cell. The number of atoms per
unit cell is the product of the number of atoms per lattice point and the number of lattice
points per unit cell.

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Figure 1-8 Illustration showing sharing of face and corner atoms

The atomic bonding in metals is metallic and thus non-directional in nature. Consequently,
there are minimal restrictions as to the number and position of nearest-neighbor atoms;
this leads to relatively large numbers of nearest neighbors and dense atomic packings for
most metallic crystal structures. Also, for metals, using the hard sphere model for the
crystal structure, each sphere represents an ion core. Table 1.1 presents the atomic radii for
a number of metals. Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of the
common metals: face centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed.
The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with atoms
located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces. It is aptly called the
face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure. Some of the familiar metals having this
crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold (see also Table 1.1). Figure 1.6 a
shows a hard sphere model for the FCC unit cell, whereas in Figure 1.6 b the atom centers
are represented by small circles to provide a better perspective of atom positions. The
aggregate of atoms in Figure 1.6 c represents a section of crystal consisting of many FCC
unit cells. These spheres or ion cores touch one another across a face diagonal; the cube
edge length a and the atomic radius R are related through

For the FCC crystal structure, each corner atom is shared among eight unit cells, whereas a
face-centered atom belongs to only two. Therefore, one-eighth of each of the eight corner
atoms and one-half of each of the six face atoms, or a total of four whole atoms, may be
assigned to a given unit cell. This is depicted in 1.6 a, where only sphere portions are
represented within the confines of the cube

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Table1.1 Atomic Radii and Crystal Structures for 16 Metals

Determination of FCC Unit Cell Volume

Calculate the volume of an FCC unit cell in terms of the atomic radius R.

the atoms touch one another across a face-diagonal the length of which is 4R. Since the
unit cell is a cube, its volume is where a3,where a is the cell edge length. From the right
triangle on the face

a2+a2=4R2 or, solving for a, a=2R√2

The FCC unit cell volume may be computed from VC = a3 = (2R√2)3=16R3√2

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The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Another common metallic crystal structure also has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at
all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center. This is called a body-centered cubic
(BCC) crystal structure. A collection of spheres depicting this crystal structure is shown in
Figure 1.9 c, whereas Figures 1.9 a and 1.9 b are diagrams of BCC unit cells with the
atoms represented by hard sphere and reduced-sphere models, respectively. Center and
corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and atomic
radius R are related through:

Figure 1.9For the body-centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

Chromium, iron, tungsten, as well as several other metals listed in Table 1.1 exhibit a BCC
structure. Two atoms are associated with each BCC unit cell: the equivalent of one atom
from the eight corners, each of which is shared among eight unit cells, and the single
center atom, which is wholly contained within its cell. In addition, corner and center atom
positions are equivalent. The coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8; each
center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner atoms.

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The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure

Not all metals have unit cells with cubic symmetry; the final common metallic crystal
structure to be discussed has a unit cell that is hexagonal. Figure 1.10 a shows a reduced-
sphere unit cell for this structure, which is termed hexagonal close packed (HCP); an
assemblage of several HCP unit cells is presented in Figure 1.10 b. The top and bottom
faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons and surround a single
atom in the center. Another plane that provides three additional atoms to the unit cell is
situated between the top and bottom planes. The atoms in this mid plane have as nearest
neighbors atoms in both of the adjacent two planes. The equivalent of six atoms is
contained in each unit cell; one-sixth of each of the 12 top and bottom face corner atoms,
one-half of each of the 2 center face atoms, and all 3 mid plane interior atoms. If a and c
represent, respectively, the short and long unit cell dimensions of Figure 1.10 a, the c/a
ratio should be 1.633; however, for some HCP metals this ratio deviates from the ideal
value. The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc; some of these
are listed in Table 1.1.

Figure 1.10 For the hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, (a) a reduced-sphere unit
cell (a and c represent the short and long edge lengths, respectively), and (b) an aggregate
of many atoms.

Coordination Number and Atomic Packing Factor (APF).

For metals, each atom has the same number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms, which
is the coordination number. For face-centered cubics, the coordination number is 12. This

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may be confirmed by examination of Figure 1.6a; the front face atom has four corner
nearest-neighbor atoms surrounding it, four face atoms that are in contact from behind,
and four other equivalent face atoms residing in the next unit cell to the front, which is not
shown. The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell (assuming
the atomic hard sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume—that is

Cmputation of the Atomic Packing Factor for FCC

Example: Show that the atomic packing factor for the FCC crystal structure is 0.74.

The APF is defined as the fraction of solid sphere volume in a unit cell, or

Both the total atom and unit cell volumes may be calculated in terms of the atomic radius
R. The volume for a sphere is 4/3πR3 and since there are four atoms per FCC unit cell, the
total FCC atom (or sphere) volume is

VS= 4(4/3πR3) = 16/3πR3

Atomic Packing Factor for BCC:-

Atomic Packing Factor for FCC:-

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Atomic Packing Factor for HCP:-

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Points, Directions, and Planes in the Unit Cell

Coordinates of Points

We can locate certain points, such as atom positions, in the lattice or unit cell by
constructing the right-handed coordinate system in Figure 1-11. Distance is measured in
terms of the number of lattice parameters we must move in each of the x, y, and z
coordinates to get from the origin to the point in question. The coordinates are written as
the three distances, with commas separating the numbers.

Directions in the Unit Cell

Certain directions in the unit cell are of particular importance. Miller indices for
directions are the shorthand notation used to describe these directions. The procedure for
finding the Miller indices for directions is as follows:

1. Using a right-handed coordinate system, determine the coordinates of two points that lie
on the direction.

2. Subtract the coordinates of the “tail” point from the coordinates of the “head” point to
obtain the number of lattice parameters traveled in the direction of each axis of the
coordinate system.

3. Clear fractions and or reduce the results obtained from the subtraction to lowest
integers.

4. Enclose the numbers in square brackets [ ]. If a negative sign is produced, represent the
negative sign with a bar over the number.

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Figure 1-11 Coordinates of selected points in the unit cell. The number refers to the
distance from the origin in terms of lattice parameters

Determine the Miller indices of directions A, B, and C and planes in Figures below.

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[121]

[011]

[12,2,3]

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Imperfections in the Atomic Arrangements

The arrangement of the atoms or ions in engineered materials contains imperfections or

defects. These defects often have a profound effect on the properties of materials.

Point defects

Point defects are localized disruptions in otherwise perfect atomic or ionic arrangements
in a crystal structure. Even though we call them point defects, the disruption affects a
region involving several atoms or ions. These imperfections, shown in Figure 1-12, may
be introduced by movement of the atoms or ions when they gain energy by heating, during
processing of the material, or by the intentional or unintentional introduction of impurities.

Figure 1-12 Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) interstitial atom, (c) small substitutional atom,
(d) large substitutional atom, (e) Frenkel defect, and (f) Schottky defect. All of these
defects disrupt the perfect arrangement of the surrounding atoms.

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Typically, impurities are elements or compounds that are present from raw materials or
processing. For example, silicon crystals grown in quartz crucibles contain oxygen as an
impurity. Dopants, on the other hand, are elements or compounds that are deliberately
added, in known concentrations, at specific locations in the microstructure, with an
intended beneficial effect on properties or processing. In general, the effect of impurities is
deleterious, whereas the effect of dopants on the properties of materials is useful.
Phosphorus (P) and boron (B) are examples of dopants that are added to silicon crystals to
improve the electrical properties of pure silicon (Si).

A point defect typically involves one atom or ion, or a pair of atoms or ions, and thus is
different from extended defects, such as dislocations or grain boundaries. An important
“point” about point defects is that although the defect occurs at one or two sites, their
presence is “felt” over much larger distances in the crystalline material.

Vacancies

A vacancy is produced when an atom or an ion is missing from its normal site in the
crystal structure as in Figure 1-18(a). When atoms or ions are missing (i.e., when
vacancies are present), the overall randomness or entropy of the material increases, which

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increases the thermodynamic stability of a crystalline material. All crystalline materials

have vacancy defects. Vacancies are introduced into metals and alloys during
solidification, at high temperatures, or as a consequence of radiation damage. Vacancies
play an important role in determining the rate at which atoms or ions move around or
diffuse in a solid material, especially in pure metals.

Interstitial Defects

An interstitial defect is formed when an extra atom or ion is inserted into the crystal
structure at a normally unoccupied position, as in Figure 1-18(b). Interstitial atoms or ions,
although much smaller than the atoms or ions located at the lattice points, are still larger
than the interstitial sites that they occupy; consequently, the surrounding crystal region is
compressed and distorted. Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often present as
impurities, whereas carbon atoms are intentionally added to iron to produce steel. For
small concentrations, carbon atoms occupy interstitial sites in the iron crystal structure,
introducing a stress in the localized region of the crystal in their vicinity. As we will see,
the introduction of interstitial atoms is one important way of increasing the strength of
metallic materials. Unlike vacancies, once introduced, the number of interstitial atoms or
ions in the structure remains nearly constant, even when the temperature is changed.

Substitutional Defects

A substitutional defect is introduced when one atom or ion is replaced by a different type
of atom or ion as in Figure 1-18(c) and (d). The substitutional atoms or ions occupy the
normal lattice site. Substitutional atoms or ions may either be larger than the normal atoms
or ions in the crystal structure, in which case the surrounding interatomic spacings are
reduced, or smaller causing the surrounding atoms to have larger interatomic spacings. In
either case, the substitutional defects disturb the surrounding crystal. Again, the
substitutional defect can be introduced either as an impurity or as a deliberate alloying
addition, and, once introduced, the number of defects is relatively independent of
temperature. Examples of substitutional defects include incorporation of dopants such as

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phosphorus (P) or boron (B) into Si. Similarly, if we add copper to nickel, copper atoms
will occupy crystallographic sites where nickel atoms would normally be present.

Dislocations

Dislocations are line imperfections in an otherwise perfect crystal. They typically are
introduced into a crystal during solidification of the material or when the material is
deformed permanently. Although dislocations are present in all materials, including
ceramics and polymers, they are particularly useful in explaining deformation and
strengthening in metallic materials. We can identify three types of dislocations: the screw
dislocation, the edge dislocation, and the mixed dislocation.

Figure 1-13 (a) The atom positions around an edge dislocation; extra half-plane of atoms
shown in perspective (b)A mixed dislocation. The screw dislocation at the front face of the
crystal gradually changes to an edge dislocation at the side of the crystal.

Edge Dislocations

An edge dislocation Figure 1-13 (a) can be illustrated by slicing partway through a perfect
crystal, spreading the crystal apart, and partly filling the cut with an extra half plane of
atoms. The bottom edge of this inserted plane represents the edge dislocation. If we
describe a clockwise loop around the edge dislocation, starting at point x and traveling an
equal number of atom spacings in each direction, we finish at point y one atom spacing
from the starting point. If an edge dislocation were not present, the loop would close. The
vector required to complete the loop is, again, the Burgers vector. In this case, the Burgers
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vector is perpendicular to the dislocation. By introducing the dislocation, the atoms above
the dislocation line are squeezed too closely together, while the atoms below the
dislocation are stretched too far apart. The surrounding region of the crystal has been
disturbed by the presence of the dislocation. A (┬) or( ┴ ) symbol is often used to denote
an edge dislocation. The long axis of the (┬ ) points toward the extra half plane. Unlike an
edge dislocation, a screw dislocation cannot be visualized as an extra half plane of atoms.

Screw Dislocations

The screw dislocation Figure 1-13 (b) can be illustrated by cutting partway through a
perfect crystal and then skewing the crystal by one atom spacing. If we follow a
crystallographic plane one revolution around the axis on which the crystal was skewed,
starting at point x and traveling equal atom spacings in each direction, we finish at point y
one atom spacing below our starting point. If a screw dislocation were not present, the
loop would close. The vector required to complete the loop is the Burgers vector b. If we
continued our rotation, we would trace out a spiral path. The axis, or line around which we
trace out this path, is the screw dislocation. The Burgers vector is parallel to the screw
dislocation.

Dislocation Motion

Consider the edge dislocation shown in Figure 1-14 (a). A plane that contains both the
dislocation line and the Burgers vector is known as a slip plane. When a sufficiently large
shear stress acting parallel to the Burgers vector is applied to a crystal containing a
dislocation, the dislocation can move through a process known as slip. The bonds across
the slip plane between the atoms in the column to the right of the dislocation shown are
broken. The atoms in the column to the right of the dislocation below the slip plane are
shifted slightly so that they establish bonds with the atoms of the edge dislocation. In this
way, the dislocation has shifted to the right Figure 1-14 (b) If this process continues, the
dislocation moves through the crystal Figure 1-14 (c) until it produces a step on the
exterior of the crystal Figure 1-14 (d) in the slip direction (which is parallel to the Burgers

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vector). (Note that the combination of a slip plane and a slip direction comprises a slip
system.) The top half of the crystal has been displaced by one Burgers vector relative to
the bottom half; the crystal has been plastically (or permanently) deformed. This is the
fundamental process that occurs many, many times as you bend a paper clip with your
fingers. The plastic deformation of metals is primarily the result of the propagation of
dislocations. This process of progressively breaking and reforming bonds requires far less
energy than the energy that would be required to instantaneously break all of the bonds
across the slip plane. The crystal deforms via the propagation of dislocations because it is
an energetically favorable process. Consider the motion by which a caterpillar moves
Figure 1-14 (e). A caterpillar only lifts some of its legs at any given time rather than lifting
all of its legs at one time in order to move forward. Why? Because lifting only some of its
legs requires less energy; it is easier for the caterpillar to do. Another way to visualize this
is to think about how you might move a large carpet that is positioned incorrectly in a
room. If you want to reposition the carpet, instead of picking it up off the floor and
moving it all at once, you might form a kink in the carpet and push the kink in the
direction in which you want to move the carpet. The width of the kink is analogous to the
Burgers vector. Again, you would move the carpet in this way because it requires less
energy it is easier to do.

Figure 1-14 (a) When a shear stress

is applied to the dislocation in (a),
the atoms are displaced, (b) causing
the dislocation to move one Burgers
vector in the slip direction. (c)
Continued movement of the
dislocation eventually creates a step
(d), and the crystal is deformed. (e)
The motion of a caterpillar is
analogous to the motion of a
dislocation.

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Grain Boundaries

The microstructure of many engineered ceramic and metallic materials consists of many
grains. A grain is a portion of the material within which the arrangement of the atoms is
nearly identical; however, the orientation of the atom arrangement, or crystal structure, is
different for each adjoining grain. Three grains are shown schematically in Figure 1-15
(a); the arrangement of atoms in each grain is identical

but the grains are oriented differently. A grain boundary, the surface that separates the
individual grains, is a narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly spaced. That is to
say, the atoms are so close together at some locations in the grain boundary that they cause
a region of compression, and in other areas they are so far apart that they cause a region of
tension. Figure 1-15 (b) shows a micrograph of grains in a stainless steel sample

One method of controlling the properties of a material is by controlling the grain size. By
reducing the grain size, we increase the number of grains and, hence, increase the amount
of grain boundary area. Any dislocation moves only a short distance before encountering a
grain boundary, and the strength of the metallic material is increased.

Figure 1-15 (a) The atoms near the boundaries of the three grains do not have an
equilibrium spacing or arrangement. (b) Grains and grain boundaries in a stainless steel
sample.

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Twin Boundaries

A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror
lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-image
positions of the atoms on the other side (Figure 1-16). The region of material between
these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin. Twins result from atomic displacements
that are produced from applied mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins), and also
during annealing heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins). Twinning
occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction, both of which
depend on the crystal structure. Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have the
FCC crystal structure, while mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.

Figure 1-16 Application of stress to the (a) perfect crystal may cause a displacement of the atoms, (b)
resulting in the formation of a twin. Note that the crystal has deformed as a result of twinning.

Home work

Determine the Miller indices of for planes and directions in Figures .

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