Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00788

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Cementitious composites made with natural fibers: Investigation

of uncoated and coated sisal fibers
Melvin Glenn Veigas a, Meysam Najimi a, Behrouz Shafei a, b, *
a
Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
b
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Synthetic fibers commonly used in cementitious composites are known to directly contribute to
Cementitious composites the material cost, while causing concerns regarding their availability and carbon footprint. As a
Sisal fibers sustainable alternative to synthetic fibers, this study explored the use of sisal fiber. To address the
Coating
potential degradability of this natural fiber, two different coatings, i.e., polyester resin and bio-
Mechanical properties
based shellac, were examined. For this purpose, various mixtures made with a range of sisal
Weathering degradation
Plastic shrinkage fiber dosages were investigated, including both uncoated and coated sisal fibers. The study
explored the mechanical properties of the developed mixtures through compressive, splitting
tensile, and flexural strength tests. From the obtained results, notable improvements were
observed in the main strength properties, compared to the mixtures that contained no fibers.
Specifically, 20% and 42% increases were recorded on average for the splitting tensile and
flexural strengths, respectively. The investigations also included weathering tests to evaluate the
durability of sisal fibers under wet/dry cycles. This was accompanied by the scanning electron
microscope (SEM) image analyses to provide a fundamental understanding of the interfacial
properties between the fiber surface and the cementitious matrix. In addition, plastic shrinkage
tests were conducted to evaluate how sisal fibers help with limiting early-age cracks. While the
mixtures with no fiber fully cracked due to plastic shrinkage within two hours, an addition of
1.4% sisal fibers was enough to entirely avoid such cracks. The outcome of this study provided
original information on how sisal fibers can be considered as an alternative to synthetic fibers for
achieving high-performance cementitious composites, especially where the price and availability
issues limit the access to synthetic fibers.

1. Introduction

As an alternative to the synthetic fibers commonly used in cementitious composites [30], natural fibers are known to be versatile
and abundant, as they can be sourced from a variety of plants, trees, crops, and waste products. Natural fibers exhibit a (relatively) low
density, have a (relatively) low cost, consume minimum energy, and are biodegradable [1,3,23,24,28,34]. Additionally, incorporating
natural fibers into cementitious composites delays the decomposition of these carbon-rich materials to the atmosphere by sequestering
their stored energy. Such properties give natural fibers certain advantages over synthetic fibers. Natural fibers are available in a variety
of forms with a wide range of diameters, lengths, aspect ratios, and surface structures [35]. Specifically, they have the potential to

* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Shafei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00788
Received 8 September 2021; Received in revised form 11 November 2021; Accepted 15 November 2021
Available online 16 November 2021
2214-5095/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.G. Veigas et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00788

improve the toughness, ductility, flexural capacity, and crack resistance of cementitious composites [2,13,25,26]. Among the wide
variety of natural fibers, sisal fibers are increasingly cultivated around the world, minimizing their shipping requirements and ulti­
mately carbon dioxide gas emissions. In addition, sisal fibers are deemed a viable natural fiber source, owing to their high strength and
biodegradability [28].
One of the main advantages of sisal fiber-reinforced cementitious composites is an effective fiber-bridging mechanism that can be
successfully achieved during and after the formation of cracks, maintaining the load transfer mechanism [27,33]. Additionally, sisal
fibers are proven to enhance the toughness and impact resistance of cementitious composites [5,14,15,29]. As for long-term durability,
Filho et al. [16] studied the effects of alkaline attack on sisal and coconut fibers. The outcome highlighted the loss of properties due to
the crystallization of lime in the fiber’s lumen, walls, and voids. Additionally, the cited study exposed the fibers to moisture in an
accelerated aging test, which captured the embrittlement that the fibers can experience. In a separate effort, Wei and Meyer [36]
investigated the degradation mechanisms of sisal fibers in alkaline and mineral-rich environments. The cited study outlined the
importance of treatments to either reduce the alkalinity of the cementitious composite or protect the individual fibers with coating.
The research motivation and significance of the current study originate from the fact that the biodegradability of sisal fibers can
potentially pose a challenge in long term, as the uncoated fibers have been found to be vulnerable to alkaline attacks in the cemen­
titious matrix. Such attacks are known to weaken the sisal fibers, mainly because of the migration of hydration products to the lumen of
the individual fibers, resulting in fiber mineralization and high water absorption. With a focus on biodegradation-related issues, this
study investigated two coating alternatives, i.e., synthetic polyester resin and bio-based shellac, to protect sisal fibers, and thus,
improve their longevity in the cementitious composite. For this purpose, various mixtures were made with a range of dosages of sisal
fibers (i.e., from 0.8% to 2.6% by mixture volume), including both uncoated and coated fibers. The developed mixtures were tested for
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and degradation under weathering conditions. The test results were
then paired with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) image analyses to provide a fundamental understanding of the interfacial
properties between the fiber surface and the cementitious matrix. The analyses covered both uncoated and coated fibers, which were
also compared prior to and after being cast in the mixtures. Additionally, the effects of sisal fibers on the plastic shrinkage of the
developed mixtures were investigated, considering that they can provide a significant contribution to limiting early-age cracks. With
the new insights extracted from the holistic investigations performed in this study, the outcome is expected to pave the way for using
sisal fibers, as an alternative to synthetic fibers, in various concrete applications.

2. Experimental program

2.1. Uncoated and coated sisal fibers

The sisal fibers used for the current study were obtained from a commercial supplier who procured them from the sisal plants grown
in Kenya. Fig. 1 shows a picture of the chopped sisal fibers with scale. The fiber microstructure is made of individual fiber cells, which
have a diameter in the range of 6–30 µm. The morphology of a typical sisal fiber can be classified into 55–66% cellulose, 12–17%
hemicellulose, 7–14% lignin, 1% pectin, and 1–7% ash [15]. The sisal fibers were cut to an average length of 6 mm. For the analysis of
surface morphology, a FEI Quanta-250 SEM equipped with a field-emission gun of 1.0 nm resolution, along with secondary and
backscattered electron detectors, was utilized. Fig. 2 shows the SEM images of uncoated sisal fibers used in this study. Uncoated sisal
fibers display a striated surface pattern, indicative of the fiber preparation process. In particular, the surface of uncoated sisal fibers

Fig. 1. Picture of chopped sisal fibers prior to the application of coating (1 inch = 25.4 mm).

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exhibits signs of abrasion. With the 500X magnification, the striation patterns have been properly captured and additional deposits,
such as calcium, can be identified.
To protect sisal fibers in the high alkaline environment of cementitious composites and avoid the shrinkage of fibers due to ab­
sorption/desorption of water, two different resins were investigated in the current study to coat the fibers. The first resin was a
synthetic polyester resin and the second one was a naturally-occurring resin called shellac. The synthetic polyester resin is created by
mixing dibasic organic acids with polyhydric alcohols. This resin is commonly considered as a sealer for the moisture protection of
furniture. On the other hand, shellac is obtained from the lac beetle found on the tree species native to the forests of India and South
East Asia. Shellac is a bio-adhesive polymer similar in composition to synthetic polymers, providing a sustainable alternative. Shellac
has numerous uses, ranging from coatings for pharmaceutical pills to furniture sealers. For preparing the polyester resin-coated sisal
fibers in the current study, various resin-to-fiber proportions were examined to determine the effective coating percentage and curing
time. The optimum coating of polyester resin was found to be 85% by mass of the total fiber, ensuring an easy dispersion during the
mixing process, while avoiding clump formation. To achieve a standardized curing time in all the mixtures made with the polyester
resin-coated fibers, seven to eight drops per 30 ml of resin catalyst were used. This was to ensure that none of the mixtures made with
the coated sisal fibers would cure asynchronously. The appropriate curing time was determined to be two hours and fifteen minutes.
This duration was decided to allow the coating to start hardening, while allocating adequate time for fiber dispersal.
For the shellac resin-coated fibers, an aerosol-based spray was employed to uniformly coat the surface of the fibers. The fibers were
then mixed with a hand mixer and sprayed again to ensure a uniform coating. Due to the multiple spray coatings required to coat all the
fibers, a forty-five minute curing time was found required. Fig. 3 shows the SEM images of the sisal fibers coated with polyester and
shellac resins. With the 50X magnification, the polyester and shellac resins are confirmed to have uniformly covered the surface of the
sisal fibers, providing a membrane-like surface. During the curing process, the resins were observed to flow into the irregularities
present on the sisal fiber’s surface. This was noted in the SEM images with the 150X magnification, in which segments of sisal fibers are
visible to have poked through the membrane. There is also evidence of tearing left behind in the resin, mostly due to the fiber being
ripped out during the curing and agitation process. Some conchoidal fractures, possibly because of the ripping of the fibers during
sample preparation for SEM image analysis, can be observed as well.

2.2. Concrete mixture designs

The materials used for the concrete mixture designs included Type I/II Portland cement, class F fly ash, fine aggregate, tap water,
sisal fiber, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber (for preliminary investigations), resin coating, and high-range water reducing (HRWR)
admixture. The chemical composition of Portland cement and class F fly ash are presented in Table 1. The fine aggregate used in this
study had a bulk specific gravity of 2.77, a saturated surface dry (SSD) specific gravity of 2.79, an absorption of 0.90%, and a fineness
modulus of 3.0. The base proportions considered for formulating various mixtures designed for the current study are reported in
Table 2. The experimental testing program consisted of the tests performed for preliminary investigations and then the main study. The
preliminary investigations focused on optimizing the method of adding the sisal fibers to the base mixture and the fiber dosages
required with and without coating. Thus, multiple mixtures were developed with the sisal fiber dosages, ranging from 0.8% to 2.6% by
mixture volume. In this set of investigations, which included both polyester and shellac resins, the coated fibers were added to each
mixture fifteen minutes before they were completely hardened. This was to avoid fiber clumps in the mixture.
For adding the fibers to the mixtures, three methods were examined, including two dry mixing methods (hereafter referred to as
DM1 and DM2) and a wet mixing method (hereafter referred to as WM). In the DM1 method, the semi-cured coated fibers were added
during the mixing of fine aggregates, followed by the addition of cement, fly ash, water, and HRWR admixture. In the DM2 method, the

Fig. 2. SEM images of uncoated sisal fibers with a magnification of (a) 50X, and (b) 500X.

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Fig. 3. SEM images of sisal fibers: (a), (b) coated with polyester resin with a magnification of 50X and 150X, and (c), (d) coated with shellac resin
with a magnification of 50X and 150X, respectively.

Table 1
Chemical composition of the Portland cement and class F fly ash used for the developed mixtures.
Type of Binder CaO SiO2 SO3 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO K2O Na2O TiO2

Portland Cement 62.94 20.10 3.18 3.09 4.44 2.88 0.61 0.10 0.24
Class F Fly Ash 15.78 50.87 0.61 5.27 20.17 3.19 1.09 0.69 1.29

Table 2
Mixture proportions developed for this study. The listed proportions are by weight, except for the fibers, which are by mixture volume.
Mixture Cement Fly Ash Fine Aggregate Water HRWR Admixture Fiber

Control mixture with no fibers 1 1.2 0.79 0.57 0 0.0%

High-performance mixture with PVA fibers 1 1.2 0.79 0.57 0.002 2.0%
Mixture with 0.8% sisal fibersa 1 1.2 0.79 0.57 0.003 0.8%
Mixture with 1.4% sisal fibersa 1 1.2 0.79 0.57 0.003 1.4%
Mixture with 2.0% sisal fibersa 1 1.2 0.79 0.57 0.005 2.0%
a
The mixture developed for each dosage of sisal fibers consisted of three subsets, including the sisal fibers uncoated, shellac resin-coated, and
polyester resin-coated.

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semi-cured coated fibers were added during the mixing of all the dry ingredients, i.e., fine aggregates, cement, and fly ash. In the WM
method, the semi-cured coated fibers were added after the mixing of all the dry and wet materials, i.e., fine aggregates, cement, fly ash,
water, and HRWR admixture. Based on the outcome of the preliminary investigations, which will be discussed in Section 3 in detail, the
WM method of fiber dispersion was selected. Table 2 summarizes the proportions of the mixtures developed for the main investigations
planned for this study. The main test matrix included three mixture designs with a sisal fiber dosage of 0.8%, 1.4%, and 2.0% by
mixture volume. Each of the sisal fiber-contained mixtures consisted of one mixture with the uncoated fibers and two mixtures with the
fibers coated with polyester and shellac resins. In addition, a mixture with 2.0% PVA fibers was designed to represent an engineered
cementitious composite mixture, which is commonly considered as a high-performance mixture. On the other hand, a mixture without
any fibers was included to serve as a control mixture.

2.3. Mixing and testing methodologies

Based on the findings from the preliminary investigations, the following mixing process was employed to make the samples: The
dry materials (i.e., fine aggregates, cement, and fly ash) were mixed for five minutes, followed by the addition of water, and mixed for
an additional five minutes. Once the mixture attained a satisfactory flow (i.e., 110 ± 5% based on the flow table test, following ASTM
C1437 [6]), the fibers were dispersed into the mixture by hand, ensuring no clumps were formed. After mixing for five minutes, the
HRWR admixture was added to the mixture to again ensure a satisfactory flow (i.e., 110 ± 5% based on the flow table test, following
ASTM C1437). The mixture was then poured into the molds. After 24 h, the samples were demolded and placed in a curing chamber
until the time of testing.
The flow of the developed mixtures was measured at their fresh state using a flow table, in accordance with ASTM C1437 [6].
Compressive strength tests were carried out using a Humboldt compression machine, following ASTM C109 [7]. For this purpose, three
50-mm cubes were cast, per mixture, for the preliminary investigations and cured for 7 days in the moist curing chamber. Three
100 mm × 200 mm cylinders were also cast, per mixture, and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days in the moist curing chamber. Splitting
tensile strength tests were carried out using a universal testing machine, following ASTM C496 [8]. For this purpose, three
100 mm × 200 mm cylinders were cast, per mixture, and cured for 28 days. Flexural strength tests were performed using the same

Fig. 4. Plastic shrinkage test setup: (a) plan and section drawings, highlighting casting box and inset wedge dimensions, and (b) casting box within
the wooden box, along with the high-speed fan incorporated for drying the slab.

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universal testing machine, in accordance with ASTM C78 [9]. For this purpose, three prismatic beams with the dimensions of
350 mm × 100 mm × 75 mm were cast, per mixture, and cured for 28 days in the moist curing chamber. The cured beams were then
placed on two supports located 25 mm away from each end of the sample. A vertical two-point load was then applied to each sample
with the response measured until ultimate failure [11,12,20,21].
To simulate the effects of wetting and drying cycles on the 28-day cured flexural beams, an accelerated aging test setup was devised
[19,31,32]. The number of wetting and drying cycles were decided based on an initial study on a set of extra samples. For the wetting
cycles, the beams were immersed in a water bath at the ambient temperature and weighed every 24 h until complete absorption was
reached. The beams were then placed in an oven with the temperature of 50 ◦ C and weighed every 24 h until the entire moisture
evaporated. Based on the initial observations, two days of wetting and two days of drying were found adequate for the accelerated
aging tests. Plastic shrinkage was also tested on a custom setup (Fig. 4), conforming to ASTM C1579 [10]. The mixtures were cast in a
box mold and then placed in a rectangular box topped with an acrylic lid. The setup included a blower running at a standard speed.
While maintaining a temperature of 37 ◦ C, a dehumidifier was used to keep the humidity as low as possible for the duration of the
experiment. The slab cast for each of the plastic shrinkage tests was monitored every fifteen minutes. This was continued until the crack
was propagated across the entire width of the slab. The uncracked slabs were monitored up to 24 h to ensure that no cracks were
developed.

3. Results from preliminary investigations

A set of preliminary mixtures were made to establish the mixing process, decide on the sequence of adding the fibers to the
mixtures, evaluate the required mixing time, and optimize the dosage of sisal fibers. This investigation was mainly to achieve a mixture
design, in which the fibers were properly dispersed, while an adequate flow was obtained. To explore the effect of the mixing method
on the compressive strength of the mixtures made with the coated sisal fibers, the three methods of mixing, i.e., DM1, DM2, and WM, as
described in Section 2.2, were considered. Compared to an average 7-day compressive strength of 18.66 MPa and 21.83 MPa obtained
for the mixtures that contained 1.4% sisal fibers and prepared by the DM1 and DM2 methods, respectively, the same mixture prepared
by the WM method provided an average 7-day compressive strength of 32.44 MPa. This was mainly because the semi-cured resin was
absorbed by the fine aggregates and cement during the initial mixing period of the DM1 and DM2 methods. In addition, since the
polyester resin coated the cement particles during the dry mix (i.e., before the addition of water to the mixture), the hydration of a
portion of cement was hindered, resulting in a reduced compressive strength. Considering the drawbacks of the DM1 and DM2
methods, the WM method, which recommends adding fibers after all the other mixture ingredients were mixed with water, was
selected. This ensured obtaining a consistent dispersion, leading to the highest mechanical properties that could be achieved.
After selecting an effective dispersion method, additional mixtures were cast, focusing on the dosage of sisal fibers in the mixture.
The initial study included four dosages, i.e., 0.8%, 1.4%, 2.0%, and 2.6% by mixture volume. This was to determine an optimum range,
beyond which any additional fibers would introduce adverse effects on the mechanical properties. Fig. 5 shows the 7-day compressive
strength test results for the tested fiber dosages. The mixtures with a fiber dosage, ranging from 0.8% to 2.0%, developed a compressive
strength comparable to the control mixture. However, the mixture that contained 2.6% sisal fibers displayed a significantly low
compressive strength, reflecting the loss of the desired mechanical properties. Thus, this dosage was eliminated from the matrix of the
mixture designs tested during the main investigation. Coating of sisal fibers, particularly with polyester resin, resulted in a slight
reduction in the compressive strength. However, due to the potential benefits of this coating for the protection of fibers in the high
alkaline environment of cementitious composites, it was decided to study all the three types of fibers, i.e., uncoated, polyester resin-
coated, and shellac resin-coated, in the main investigations.

Fig. 5. 7-day average compressive strengths obtained from the cube samples tested during the preliminary investigations.

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4. Results from main investigations

Based on the results of the preliminary investigations, a set of mixtures were cast, following Table 2. The mixtures were tested for
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, weathering degradation, and plastic shrinkage. This section provides
the main results and findings from each of these tests for the mixtures containing 0.8–2.0% sisal fibers, in the forms of uncoated,
polyester resin-coated, and shellac resin-coated fibers.

4.1. Compressive strength

Fig. 6 shows the 28-day compressive strengths of the mixtures developed for the main investigations. In general, the mixtures with
uncoated fibers provided a higher compressive strength than those with the polyester resin-coated and shellac resin-coated fibers. The
28-day compressive strength of the mixtures with 0.8% sisal fibers was almost similar to that of the control mixture made without
fibers. However, as the dosage of sisal fibers was increased to 1.4% and 2.0%, the compressive strength of the mixtures started to drop.
This drop was more significant in the mixtures with coated fibers than those with uncoated fibers. The mixtures with 2.0% coated sisal
fibers experienced the highest loss in their compressive strength. This can be attributed to the hydrophilic nature of the resins, in which
the oxygen atoms bond with the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules present in the fresh mortar, increasing the amount of water
absorbed by the coated fibers. Consistent with the findings of Ahmad and Fan [4], this, in turn, results in a void formation at the
fiber-matrix interface, ultimately reducing the compressive strength, especially with high dosages of coated fibers.
To further confirm this hypothesis, the SEM images of the mixtures prepared with the uncoated and coated sisal fibers were
analyzed. Figs. 7 through 9 clearly show the void formation around the coated fibers. It can be noted in Fig. 7 that the surface of the
uncoated fibers hosts various hydration products. This occurs during the curing process, in which a variety of hydration products
migrate from the matrix to the fiber surface. This is, particularly, evident in Fig. 7(b), which presents a 500X magnification. One of the
main products observed on the fiber’s surface is calcium hydroxide. Additionally, unreacted fly ash particles can be identified in this
figure. On the other hand, Fig. 8(a) shows the voids formed at the top of the polyester resin-coated fiber. With a zoomed-in view that
has a 500X magnification, a distinct void space is detected. This is due to the water absorbed by the coating from the surrounding
cementitious matrix (Fig. 8(b)). Similar voids are detected in the mixtures made with the shellac resin-coated fibers (Fig. 9(a) and (b)).
This clearly highlights the role of coating added to the individual fibers.

4.2. Splitting tensile strength

The results from the splitting tensile strength tests are presented in Fig. 10. Overall, regardless of the coating type, notable im­
provements were recorded in the tensile strength by the addition of sisal fibers. After 28 days, the tensile strengths of the mixtures with
uncoated fibers were 18%, 24%, and 24% higher than those of the control mixture (without fibers) for the fiber dosages of 0.8%, 1.4%,
and 2.0%, respectively. For similar fiber contents, the obtained improvements were 13%, 24%, and 25% for the mixtures with
polyester resin-coated fibers, and 19%, 24%, and 20% for the mixtures with shellac resin-coated fibers, respectively. The reported
observations can be explained by the contribution of sisal fibers to bridging the cracks and transferring the applied loads, allowing a
distributed microcrack system to be developed.

Fig. 6. 28-day average compressive strengths of the mixtures made with various sisal fiber dosages.

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Fig. 7. SEM images of the surface of the uncoated sisal fiber in the cementitious matrix cured for 7 days (with a magnification of (a) 150X, and
(b) 500X).

Fig. 8. SEM images of the cross-section of the polyester resin-coated sisal fiber in the cementitious matrix cured for 7 days (with a magnification of
(a) 150X, and (b) 500X).

4.3. Flexural strength

A set of four-point bending tests were conducted on the beam samples to determine the flexural strength of the mixtures made with
sisal fibers. Fig. 11 shows representative stress-strain curves obtained during flexural strength tests for the mixtures with 2.0% coated
sisal fibers, compared to the high-performance mixtures that contained 2.0% PVA fibers. While the mixtures with sisal fibers did not
reach the same flexural strength as the high-performance mixtures, they followed a very similar trend of capacity development. The
mixtures with 2.0% sisal fibers showed a strain of 1.5% at 67% of their ultimate flexural strength and a strain of 2.5% at 50% of their
ultimate flexural strength. Fig. 12 presents the ultimate flexural strength of the mixtures developed with different dosages of sisal
fibers. Similar to the results of the splitting tensile strength tests, inclusion of sisal fibers increased the flexural strength of the studied
mixtures. The mixtures with 2.0% sisal fibers provided the highest flexural strength, followed by the mixtures with 1.4% and 0.8% sisal
fibers. While the flexural strengths of the control mixture and the mixture with 0.8% sisal fibers were 2.0 MPa (on average), the
recorded flexural strengths improved by 36% and 48% (on average) after increasing the fiber dosage to 1.4% and 2.0%, respectively.
Among the three coating alternatives, the mixtures with uncoated fibers displayed slightly higher flexural strengths, although the
flexural strengths recorded for the mixtures with coated fibers were also reasonably close. Overall, the mechanical properties of the
mixtures under consideration were found to enhance by adding sisal fibers. This was completely consistent with the findings available
in the literature, including the observations made in [23,24] for the mixtures that contained coconut fibers.

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Fig. 9. SEM images of the cross-section of the shellac resin-coated sisal fiber in the cementitious matrix cured for 7 days (with a magnification of (a)
150X, and (b) 500X).

Fig. 10. 28-day average tensile strengths of the mixtures with various sisal fiber dosages.

4.4. Performance under weathering conditions

One of the main issues that can limit the application of natural fibers in concrete is their degradation in the high alkaline envi­
ronment that concrete provides. To assess the durability of sisal fibers in the developed mixtures, an accelerated weathering test (wet/
dry cycles) was performed. Upon completing a preliminary investigation to optimize the wet/dry cycles, the developed mixtures were
subjected to 25 cycles of wetting/drying and their flexural strengths were systematically measured before, after 12, and after 25 cycles.
The flexural strength results are shown in Fig. 13. The wet/dry cycles highlight the poor performance of the control mixture and the
mixture with the polyester resin-coated fibers, as they lost almost 50% of their flexural strengths in 25 cycles. On the other hand, the
mixtures with uncoated fibers and shellac resin-coated fibers lost only 25% of their flexural strengths after 25 cycles. Since the control
mixture (i.e., without sisal fibers) also experienced a significant flexural strength loss, the reported reductions cannot be due to the age-
dependent loss of fiber properties. To confirm this hypothesis, the sisal fibers were immersed in a calcium hydroxide solution for a
week and then inspected by SEM.
As shown in Fig. 14, the fibers immersed in the calcium hydroxide solution displayed a degraded surface morphology. Kundu et al.
[22] studied the differences between the smooth surface of an untreated jute fiber and the rough surface (with fragments and fibril
separation) of an alkali-modified jute fiber. The study highlighted that the combined alkali and polymer-modified jute fiber retains
close to 20% more tensile strength than the raw jute fiber after 360 days of exposure to the sodium hydroxide solution. Ghali et al. [17]
attributed the microstructural change in the alkali-modified jute fiber to the removal of surface impurities, non-cellulosic materials,

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Fig. 11. Stress-strain curves obtained for the mixtures with sisal and PVA fibers.

Fig. 12. 28-day average flexural strengths of the mixtures made with various sisal fiber dosages.

inorganic substances, and waxes. Additionally, the cited study highlighted how the rough surface morphology of alkali-treated jute
fibers may enhance the contact area and adhesion between the fiber and the polymer matrix when the fibers are used as a reinforcing
agent in the composites. From such observations, it can be stated that the fiber surface free of surface impurities has a higher potential
to form a strong bond with the concrete matrix, resulting in an improved strength for the fiber-reinforced composite. This was
completely in line with the findings of the current study, in which the mixtures with uncoated fibers delivered a flexural strength
higher than the mixtures with coated fibers throughout the entire weathering tests.

4.5. Plastic shrinkage

To assess the effects of sisal fibers on plastic shrinkage, a set of slabs were made with and without sisal fibers using the test setup
shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 15 shows the cracks induced by plastic shrinkage in the mixtures with no, 0.8%, and 1.4% sisal fibers. It can be
seen in Fig. 15(a) and (b) that the slab without sisal fibers cracked within the first two hours, possibly due to the high cementitious
content of the mixture. It can also be noted that these cracks propagated all the way through the width of the slab. Fig. 15(c) and (d)
show that the slab with 0.8% sisal fibers experienced some cracks, but considerably less than the slab made with the control mixture.

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Fig. 13. Flexural strengths of the developed mixtures subjected to wet/dry cycles.

Fig. 14. SEM image of the sisal fibers immersed in the calcium hydroxide solution (with a magnification of 50X).

This was further improved in the mixture with 1.4% sisal fibers, in which no cracks were observed during the 24 h of monitoring after
casting (Fig. 15(e) and (f)). The reported findings are supported by Juarez et al. [18], which also showed the effectiveness of natural
fibers (flax and agave lechuguilla) in reducing plastic shrinkage-induced cracks. The improvement achieved can be attributed to the
large contact area between the individual fibers and the surrounding cementitious matrix, which can be further strengthened by the
adhesion that occurs at the fiber-matrix interface with the hydroxyl groups that are present in the cement hydration products.

5. Conclusions

As an alternative to synthetic fibers, sisal fibers have a great promise to offer a sustainable choice for the bio-based composites
appropriate for various civil infrastructure applications, including building façade panels, framing members, and deck elements. In the
two stages of preliminary and main investigations performed for the current study, multiple cubes, cylinders, and beams were cast with
various sisal fiber dosages (without and with coating) and tested for compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strength. The developed
mixtures were additionally tested to evaluate their mechanical properties after weathering under accelerated wet/dry cycles. The
outcome was then explained based on the experimental test results and supporting SEM image analyses. Furthermore, plastic shrinkage
tests were conducted to evaluate how sisal fibers contribute to improving the crack resistance of the developed mixtures. The following
findings and conclusions can be reported based on the results obtained from this holistic study.

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M.G. Veigas et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00788

Fig. 15. Images from the plastic shrinkage tests: (a), (b) fully cracked control mixture that had no fibers, (c), (d) partially cracked mixture with 0.8%
sisal fibers, and (e),(f) uncracked mixture with 1.4% sisal fibers.

• From the preliminary investigations on the three methods of fiber dispersion/mixing, adding fibers (coated or uncoated) after
mixing of all the dry and wet materials was found to be the most effective method for mixing. In addition, with changing the sisal
fiber dosage in the range of 0.8–2.6% by mix volume, different mixtures were tested. The mixtures with a fiber dosage up to 2.0%
developed a compressive strength comparable to the control mixture, and thus, were selected as the basis of the main
investigations.
• Coating of the sisal fibers with two different strategies was also explored. The fibers coated with polyester resin resulted in a slight
reduction in the compressive strength of the developed mixtures. However, due to the potential benefits of this coating for the
protection of fibers in the high alkaline environment of concrete, it was decided to study all the three types of fibers, i.e., uncoated,
polyester resin-coated, and shellac resin-coated, in the main investigations.
• Use of sisal fibers, either uncoated or coated, led to notable improvements in the tensile and flexural strengths of the mixtures,
compared to the mixtures with no fibers. The improvements were quantified to be 20% and 42% (on average) for the splitting
tensile and flexural strength, respectively. It was recognized that the mixtures with sisal fibers did not reach the same flexural
strength as the high-performance mixture made with PVA fibers. However, they followed a very similar trend of strain develop­
ment, highlighting the potential of sisal fibers to offer a natural alternative to synthetic fibers, introducing price, abundance, and
sustainability advantages.
• The weathering study conducted with wet/dry cycles showed the superior resistance of the mixtures with uncoated and shellac
resin-coated fibers, compared to the mixtures without fibers and those with polyester resin-coated fibers. The detailed SEM image
analyses revealed that the sisal fibers did not experience any major degradation in the alkaline environment of the cementitious
matrix. They were also found to develop a strong bond with the cementious matrix. This observation was further confirmed by
monitoring the degradation of fibers immersed in the calcium hydroxide solution.
• Sisal fibers were determined to be effective in mitigating plastic shrinkage-induced cracks. Comparing the performance of various
mixtures, the mixtures with no fibers fully cracked due to plastic shrinkage within two hours, whereas the addition of 1.4% sisal
fibers was enough to entirely avoid such cracks. The obtained results indicated that sisal fibers can be considered as a viable
alternative to synthetic fibers for a variety of applications.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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