NAME-Anushka Sharma

ROLL NO.- 20/0019

INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Assessment of individual differences has remained one of the important concerns of

psychology from the very beginning. Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological
attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain
standards of comparison.
Psychological assessment is a complex, integrative, and conceptual activity that involves
deriving inferences from multiple sources of information to achieve a comprehensive
understanding of an individual. According to Cohen & Swerdlik (2001), Psychological
assessment is the gathering and integration of psychological-related data for the purpose of
making a psychological evaluation, accomplished through the use of the tools such as tests,
interviews, case studies, behavioural observation, and specially designed apparatuses and
measurement procedure. Framingham (2011) defined psychological assessment as a way of
testing people about their behaviour, personality, and capabilities to draw conclusions using
combinations of techniques According to Suhr (2015), psychological assessment ‘is a
conceptual, problem-solving process of gathering dependable, relevant information about an
individual in order to make an informed decision. Thus, Psychological assessment is a
complex, integrative, and conceptual activity that involves deriving inferences from multiple
sources of information to achieve a comprehensive understanding of an individual.

DIFFERENCE AMONG ASSESSMENT, TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

The terms assessment, testing and measurement are often confused. Thus, it is important that
these terms should be clearly distinguished. Assessment is a general term that includes any of
a variety of procedures used to obtain information about performance. It includes paper-and-
experiment), teacher observation, and self-report of the student. The basic goal of assessment
is to pencil tests, as well as extended responses, performance of authentic tasks (such as
laboratory evaluate a person in terms of current and future functioning. In the process of
assessment, behaviours are classified into different categories measured against normative
standard. In fact assessment answers the basic question: How well does the individual
perform?

Testing is done through systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behaviour by putting
a set of questions in a uniform manner. Such systematic procedure is called test. Thus, tests
are used in assessment processes. Since tests are a form of assessment, they also answer the
related question: How well does the individual perform either in comparison with others or in
comparison with performance of any task? However, not all assessment techniques are tests.
In the strict sense, any assessment technique is called a test only when its procedure for
administration, scoring and interpretation are standardized; there is a standardization sample:
and there is evidence for its reliability and validity. Many so-called tests can more
appropriately be called as assessment devices because they don't meet the minimum
requirements of a test.

Measurement is only a process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an

individual possesses a particular characteristic. This numerical description is done according
to some rules. In fact, measurement answers the basic question: How much?

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS

Most used methods of psychological assessments are biological methods and psychological
testing. These are discussed below:

Biological methods: Several methods for measuring the association between biological
systems and abnormal behavior have been developed.These techniques are seldom used in
clinical practice (at least for the diagnosis of psychopathology), but they have been employed
extensively in research settings, and it seems possible that they will one day become an
important source of information.

Types of biological methods

Most well-known types of biological methods are given below:

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and CT scans: In MRI, images are generated
using a strong magnetic field rather than X-rays. A large magnet in the scanner causes
chemical elements in specific brain regions to emit distinctive radio signals. Both
computed tomography (CT) scanning, and MRI can provide a static image of specific
brain structures. MRI provides more detailed images than CT scans and is able to
identify smaller parts of the brain.
 PET scans: PET Scan Positron emission tomography (PET) is one scanning technique
that can be used to create functional brain images. This procedure is much more
expensive than the other imaging techniques because it requires a nuclear cyclotron to
produce special radioactive elements. PET scans are capable of providing relatively
detailed images of the brain.
 fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a non-invasive and safe
technique to measure and map the activities of brain during normal as well as diseased
conditions. It measures the changes in the brain’s blood flow that happen with brain
activity.
Psychological Tests. Psychological test can be described as measurement of sample of
behaviour that is standardised and objective (Anastasi, 1969). Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2013)
explained psychological test a device or technique used in quantification of behaviour that
helps in not only understanding behaviour but also to predicting it.Cohen and Swerdlik
(2010, page 2), defined psychological testing “ as the process of measuring psychology-
related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior”.
A psychological test must be objective and standardized. It should also have reliability,
validity and norms.

Performance Tests: A performance test is an assessment that requires an examinee to actually

perform a task or activity, rather than simply answering questions referring to specific parts.

The purpose is to ensure greater fidelity to what is being tested. they are particularly used in

the assessment of nonverbal aspects of behaviour such as motor performance. An example is

a behind-the-wheel driving test to obtain a driver's license. Rather than only answering
simple

multiple-choice items regarding the driving of an automobile, a student is required to actually

drive one while being evaluated. Performance tests are commonly used in workplace and

professional applications, such as professional certification and licensure. When used for

personnel selection, the tests might be referred to as a work sample.

• Projective Techniques: These techniques are assumed to reveal those central aspects of

personality that lie in the unconscious mind of an individual. Unconscious motivations,

hidden

desires, inner fears and complexes are presumed to be elicited by their unstructured nature
that

affect the client’s conscious behaviour. An unstructured task is one that permits an endless

range of possible responses. The underlying hypothesis of projective techniques is that the the

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS

Important to the assessment process are three important properties. These are: reliability,
validity, norms, objectivity and standardization.

Reliability: In its simplest sense, reliability refers to the precision, or accuracy, of the
measurement or score. In other words, such a measure should give consistent results.
According to Anastasi & Urbina (1997, 85), reliability refers to "the occasions, or with
different sets of equivalent items, or under other variable examining conditions. Thus,
reliability refers to this consistency of scores of measurements which is reflected in the
reproducibility of the scores. When all other factors are held constant or somehow controlled,
a reliable test is one that produces identical (or at least highly similar) results for an examinee
from one occasion to the other.There are four most common methods of estimating the
reliability of test scores. These methods are: (i) Test-retest reliability, (ii) Internal
consistency reliability, and (iii) Parallel-forms reliability, or Alternate-forms reliability, or
Equivalent-forms reliability, or Comparable-forms reliability, and (iv) Inter-Scorer reliability.

Validity: It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure. Anastasi
(1968, 99) has said, "The validity of a test concerns what the test measures and how well it
does so." Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2001) have defined validity as "the agreement between a
test score or measure and the quantity it is believed to measure."

Norms: A test must also be guided by certain norms. Norms refer to the average perform
representative sample on a given test. There are four common types of norms-age norms,
percentile norms and standard score norms. Depending upon the purpose and constructor
prepares any of these norms for his test. Norms help in interpretation of the absence of norms,
no meaning can be added to the score obtained on the test.

Standardization: It refers to the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and procedures

for

administering a test. If we want to make a comparative evaluation of the performances of

many

individuals on the same test, it is obvious that they all take that test under identical

circumstances. Any change in the testing procedure may produce a change in individual

performance on the test.

• Objectivity: It refers primarily to the scoring of the test result for a test to be scored
objectively, itt is necessary that anyone scoring the test be able to obtain the same results. It
refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same
group of people,

both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the group.

For a psychological test to become an objective measure, the following conditions need to be
met: Items should be worded in such a manner that they communicate the same meaning to
different readers. Instructions to test taker about how to answer the test items should be
specified in advance. Procedure to administer the test (such as environmental conditions, time
limit, mode of administration) should be specified and Procedure to score the participant’s
responses needs to be standardized so that uniformity can be maintained when test is scored
by different experts.

DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Various domains of psychological assessment are briefly discussed below:

 Personality: It is defined as characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviours that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from
within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. American
Psychological Association (2016) defines personality as individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Personality tests are one of
the main tools designed to measure one’s personality. Personality testing is designed
to elicit responses from participants about their behaviours, preferences, emotional
responses, interactions, and motivations in order to evaluate personality
characteristics and patterns. There are two basic types of personality tests: self-report
inventories and projective tests. Self-report inventories involve having test-takers read
questions and then rate how well the question or statement applies to them. One of the
most common self-report inventories is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI). Projective tests involve presenting the test-taker with a vague
 scene, object, or scenario and then asking them to give their interpretation of the test
item. One well-known example of a projective test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test.
 Intelligence : According to American Psychological Association, intelligence can be
defined as the ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the
environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason. Intelligence refers
to intellectual functioning and it is measured in the form of intelligent quotient ( IQ).
An intelligence test, often referred to as an IQ test, is a way of assessing a person’s
mental ability. IQ tests are based on the assumption that a detailed sample of a
person’s current intellectual functioning can predict how well he or she will perform
in school, and most are individually administered. The most commonly administered
intelligence tests include the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV, 2008); the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, (WISC-IV, 2003); and the Stanford–Binet
Intelligence test.
 Interest: An interest may be defined as a preference for one activity over another. This
simple definition reflects two points. Firstly, interests involve the selection and
ranking of different activities along a like-dislike dimension. Secondly, interests
involve activities or behaviours indulged in by individuals. Based upon methods
employed to evoke responses, Super & Crites (1962) have classified interests into
three types-(a) Expressed Interest, (b) Manifest Interest and (c) Inventoried Interest.
Expressed interest, as its name implies, is the most simple and direct way of obtaining
information interest and is defined as an interest whenever a person states his
preference for one activity over another. An interest is made manifest when a person
voluntarily participates in an activity. Inventoried interests are those interests which
are measured by interest tests that compare interest in different activities. Examples of
famous interest inventories are Strong Interest Inventory (SII), the Kuder
Occupational Inventory Survey (KOIS), Campbell interest and skill survey (CISS)
etc.
 Aptitude: Aptitude refers to an individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills.
Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper
environment and training. They assess a test taker’s potential for learning or ability to
perform in a new job or situation. Aptitude tests measure the product of cumulative
life experiences—or what one has acquired over time. They help determine what
“maximum” can be expected from a person. Schools, businesses, and government
agencies often use aptitude tests to predict how well someone will perform or to
 estimate the extent to which an individual will profit from a specified course of
training. Vocational guidance counseling may involve aptitude testing to help clarify
the test taker’s career goals. Examples are Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
Battery Bloomberg Aptitude Test, Differential Aptitude Test etc.
 Testing Motor Ability: A cluster of jobs in industrial and military organisations need a
sufficient degree of motor skill involving muscular coordination, finger dexterity or a
precise eye-hand coordination. The motor tests that are typically included in a
neuropsychological test battery look at how effectively the individual is able to
coordinate hand-eye movements, finger dexterity, balance and motor speed in general.
These tasks, while appearing simple in and of themselves are critically important for
to the performance of many tasks of daily living. Everything from academics to social
interaction is to some degree dependent on motor skills. The MacQuarrie Test for
Mechanical Ability is one of the few tests of motor ability in paperand-pencil form.
The O’Connor Finger Dexterity Test and O’Connor Tweezer Dexterity Test assess
how quickly an individual can insert pins into small holes, both by hand and by the
use of tweezers.

IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS

Psychological tests are used in various contexts. Most known areas which use psychological
tests are educational, clinical, counselling, and organizational settings.

Educational Settings: Psychological tests play an important role in educational settings and
their role is likely to continue to increase in future. Assessment has always been an integral
part of education. However, current educational environment demands a greater emphasis on
the psychological aspects of the teaching–learning process. The scientific understanding of
behaviour and mental processes, as derived from psychology, can be operationalised for
effective and empowering education that is needed in the twenty-first century through the use
of appropriate psychological tests.

Some of the psychological tests that can be used in educational setting are:

 Career interest inventory: Career Interest Inventory (1995) is a 170-items inventory,

which is used to provide information concerning the interest in 15 different
occupational areas. The inventory has been prepared by Gillian Hyde and Geoff
Tricpey (1995) and published by The Psychological Corporation. Career Interest
Inventory can be used alone or in combination with Differential Aptitude Tests
 (DAT), if the measure of aptitude is required for guidance and counselling purpose.
The responses to items are a five-point Likert-type, through which the subject shows
his level of liking/disliking for various activities mentioned in the item. The Career
Interest Profile not only helps in gaining self-awareness, but also helps in
constructing a list of areas for career exploration and identifying specific courses of
action.
 Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) (A Part of Raven’s Progressive Matrices) :The
Raven’s Progressive Matrices test is a widely used intelligence test in many research
and applied settings (Raven et al. 2003). It consists of 60 items arranged in five sets
(A, B, C, D and E) of 12 items each. Each item contains a figure with a missing
piece . Raven’s Progressive Matrices was designed primarily as a measure of
Spearman’s ‘g’ (1904). There are no time limits, although most subjects complete the
test in 20–25 minutes. There are simple oral instructions. There are three different
tests for different abilities such as Coloured Progressed Matrices (younger children
and special groups), Stanford Progressive Matrices (average six-year-olds to 80-year
olds), and Advanced Progressive Matrices (above average adolescents and adults).

Clinical Settings: Clinical assessment has a long history in the field of clinical psychology.
Clinical assessment refers to a “procedure by which clinicians, using psychological tests,
observations and interviews, develop a summary of the client’s symptoms and problems”
(Carson et al., 2017). An assessment by a clinician is valuable at various stages of treatment.
It helps one understand the progress in treatment and to evaluate the outcome of a certain
intervention or treatment process. During the initial assessments, the clinical psychologist
tries to figure out the probable causes underlying the psychological dysfunction and makes
certain critical decisions such as involvement of family members during the therapy,
necessity of hospitalisation as well as the treatment approach to be followed. Through the
initial assessment or the pre-treatment examination, the baseline levels are established such
that the effect of treatment can later be evaluated and measured.Thus, psychological testing in
the field of clinical psychology plays a very crucial role.

Personality tests are most used tests in clinical settings. Personality tests try to assess an
individual’s unique characteristics. Psychologists use projective techniques, self-report
measures or other assessment methods to assess an individual's personality.
One of the most commonly used personality test in clinical settings is Cattell’s 16-
Personality Factors (16-PF). 16-PF is a landmark contribution by Raymond B. Cattell
(1982). This is a self report personality test which gives objective scores. This is a test which
has condensed 4,504 real traits , beginning with all the adjectives in an unabridged English
dictionary, into 36 surface traits and 16 source traits, through the use of factor analytic
method. The test consists of 185 items with three forced choice alternatives for each item.
The test is applicable to persons of 16 years and above, and measures anxiety, extraversion,
independence, self-control and tough-mindedness. It gives the most complete coverage of the
personality possible in a brief time. The 16 personality factors mentioned are: Warmth (A),
Reasoning (B), Emotional stability (C), Dominance (E), Liveliness (F), Rule-consciousness
(G), Social boldness (H), Sensitivity (I), Vigilance (L), Abstractedness (M), Privateness (N),
Apprehension (O), Openness to change (Q1), Self-reliance (Q2), Perfectionism (Q3) and
Tension (Q4). 16-PF is widely used to measure normal personality characteristics, preference
for various work activities, problem-solving abilities and to identify problems in areas known
to be problematic for adults.

An example of Indian commonly used projective personality test is the Indian Adaptation of
Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Test for Children, developed by Udai Pareek in
collaboration with Saul Rosenzweig in the year 1958. It is applicable to 5- to 12-year-old
children. This test attempts to measure responses to frustrating situations. During the
preparation of the Indian version, care was taken to retain the original situations. The 24
situations depicted in cartoon-like pictures continue to be the same. However, changes made
were mainly in form of certain paraphernalia of the pictures like clothing and furniture. Apart
from this some of the captions were also changed and there was a slight modification in the
record blank. The test was found to have high inter-rater reliability and moderate internal
consistency.

Counselling Settings: Counselling has been used to denote a wide range of procedures
including advice giving, support in times of trouble or need, encouragement, information
giving, and test interpretation. Psychological tests have an important position in the field of
guidance and counselling and psychology. Psychological test have been used by various
agencies and individuals to gather valid and reliable information on individuals. Because of
the valuable information expected from such tests, it is essential for psychological tests to be
standardized. Many counsellors, psychologists and other professionals have used
psychological tests in their discipline.
Various types of psychological tests used in counselling settings are discussed below:

One well known psychological test is the Child-Rearing Practices Questionnaire by T.E.
Dielman and Keith Barton. Child rearing practices are parenting practices which are the
mechanisms through which parents directly help their children attain socialisation goal. It is
applicable for potential or actual mothers and fathers. It measures 16 factors of child-rearing
practices. For the reliability and validity, congruence coefficients were computed among
rotated factor pattern matrices, all factor mulches were significant; additional validation
research completed on the questionnaire includes the relation of child-rearing practices to
achievement in school (Barton et al. 1974, cited in Chadha 1996); prediction of behaviour
problems in 6–8-year-old children.

The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale is an example of another test used in counseling settings
This scale was designed by William H. Fitts and is applicable to people of ages 12 years and
over. Self-concept is the image we have of ourselves. It is influenced by many forces,
including our interaction with important people in our lives. It is how we perceive our
behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics. It measures Self-concept (90 items) and self-
criticism (10 items). It has 100 items (five-point scale from false to completely true). The
Retest reliability—while it varies for different scores—is in the high 0.80s and the validity
Correlations with various MMPI scales are frequently in the 0.50s and 0.60s. An Indian scale
is the Self-Concept Inventory by Sagar Sharma.

Another commonly used test in counseling setup is the Adjustment Inventory by Bell.
Adjustment tests are used to test how well a person copes or adjusts to his environment.
Adjustment tests are used to test how well a person copes or adjusts to his environment. In
psychology, adjustment refers to the behavioural process of balancing conflicting needs, or
needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. It included a series of questions designed
to measure home adjustment, health adjustment, social adjustment, and emotional adjustment.
This is the adult form of the test, published in 1938. The test has six subscales and 200 items
(Yes/No). An example of an Indian adjustment test could be Adolescent Adjustment
Inventory by N.Y. Reddy for adolescents.

Organizational Settings: Many local and international companies in both the private and
public sector use pre-employment tests, as well as tests within their workforce as well, often a
psychological test for employment, such as aptitude and personality tests, says the Institute of
Psychometric Coaching. According to the Institute: “These tests are the most effective
method to measure (a candidate's) ‘fit’, or match, for a position (they) apply for. These tests
tell employers what they need to know, not just what (the job applicant) wants to share with
them.”

Some of the tests used in organizational settings are:

Personality testing has become a huge activity in the current organisations and has been
observed to grow at a significant percentage. Different organisations use personality testing
as a way of assessing the characteristics of both their current and future workers, with the
results being used for varied purposes. One of the commonly used personality tests for
assessing personality at the workplace is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). is an
introspective self-report questionnaire indicating differing psychological preferences in how
people perceive the world and make decisions. The test attempts to assign a value to each of
four categories: introversion or extraversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling, and
judging or perceiving. This well-known tool for mapping employee personalities is widely
used by businesses as psychometric assessments administered to candidates during the pre-
hiring process. The tests measure many of the traits like extroversion vs. introversion,
intuition vs. sensing, thinking vs. feelings and judging vs. perceiving. Results from these tests
place the employee into one of 16 personality types, which each have their own strengths and
weaknesses. The MBTI was constructed by two Americans: Katharine Cook Briggs and her
daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, who were inspired by the book Psychological Types by Swiss
psychiatrist Carl Jung.

Psychological tests are also used to measure job/ work related attitudes. A person may
possess a variety of attitudes, but organizational scenario encompasses only those attitudes
which relate to work life. These attitudes are generally evaluations which employees hold
about their work environment. These attitudes may be favourable or unfavorable, i.e.,
positive or negative. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two most studies
work attitudes. An example of a psychological test used to measure job satisfaction is known
as overall job satisfaction scale developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951). This test is
applicable to a wide variety of jobs and measures job satisfaction.This scale consists of 18
items with five alternative responses i. e., strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and
strongly disagree which are scored 1 to 5. The scale contains 9 positive and 9 negative
statements. The higher scores on the scale indicate higher job satisfaction while lower scores
indicate lower job satisfaction. The scale has high reliability.
 Another test used to measure job attitude of organizational commitment is known as
Organisational Commitment Questionnaire developed by L.W. Porter and F.J. Smith. It
measures the organisational commitment which is defined as the strength of an individual’s
identification with an involvement in a particular organisation is said to be characterised by
three factors: a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values, a
readiness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation and a strong desire to
remain a member of the organisation. It is applicable to Employees at any level. The
questionnaire consists of 15 items.

CONCLUSION

Psychological assessment is a complex, integrative, and conceptual activity that involves

deriving inferences from multiple sources of information to achieve a comprehensive
understanding of an individual. Assessment is different from testing and measurement.
Psychological assessment uses various methods such as biological methods, psychological
tests etc. , to develop a holistic understanding of an individual. There are also various
psychometric properties of psychological assessment such as reliability, validity and norms.
Psychological assessment measures various psychological domains of an individual such as
interest, personality, intelligence etc. One commonly known method of psychological
assessment known as psychological tests has wide range of applications in various contexts
such as educational, clinical, counselling, and organizational settings. Thus, psychological
assessment is a crucial process in the field of psychology.

REFERENCES

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Hall of India Private Limited.

Chadha, N. K. (2009). Applied Psychometry. SAGE Publications .

Gregory, R. J. (2014). Psychological testing: History, principals and applications. (6th Edition).
Boston: Pearson Education.

Husain, A. (2012). Psychological testing. New Delhi, India: Pearson Education.

Kaplan, R. M., &Saccuzzo, D. P. (2012).Psychological testing: Principles, applications and issues
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