International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM)

Volume: 08 Issue: 07 | July - 2024 SJIF Rating: 8.448 ISSN: 2582-3930

Review on Fuel Injectors with Different Components Configurations in a Semi-

Cryogenic Rocket Engine

P A Chandru*, Prasanna Senthil, Rajesh R, Shristy Kumar, Shubham Shah, Simran kaur

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

AEROIN SPACETECH PRIVATE LIMITED

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Abstract - Semi-cryogenic engines are a key advancement their excellent atomization and mixing capabilities under
in the field of rocketry due to their potential capabilities. Fuel high-pressure conditions.
injectors are one of the significant components used in semi-
cryogenic engines. This research paper aims to review This research paper aims to review the different fuel injector
different types of fuel injectors and their components. It is configurations and their functioning in a semi-cryogenic
important to note that the selection of the fuel injector for a rocket engine.
semi-cryogenic engine is based on many factors, such as
FUEL INJECTORS
mission profile, engine requirements, and other
considerations. Thus, the best fuel injector may vary
depending on these factors. 1. WORKING OF FUEL INJECTORS
Semi cryogenic engines run on cryogenic oxidizer (usually
liquid oxygen, LOX) and liquid hydrocarbon fuel such as
Key Words: fuel injector, rocket propulsion, injector
refined kerosene (RP-1). These engines operate at very high
components.
pressures and temperatures. The task of the fuel injector is to
ensure that the propellant is distributed and mixed in proper
1. INTRODUCTION
proportion before the exhaust escapes out from the throat and
nozzle of the rocket engine. The higher the combustion
Propulsion system is one of the most important pillars in the efficiency of the engine, the better is the fuel injector system.
evolution of rockets. Advancements in propulsion systems
lead to massive performance improvement and cost reduction. The basic principle of fuel injector is to maximize the surface
Ongoing research on propulsion systems in semi-cryogenic area to mass ratio of the propellant in the combustion chamber
engines have enabled semi-cryogenic based rockets to of the engine. This is achieved by spraying the liquid
compete with cryogenic and solid engine based rockets. propellant through tiny holes (injectors). These injectors not
only increase the propellant velocity but also atomize the
The semi cryogenic engine will facilitate applications for propellant, leading to better combustion. [Refer to reference
future space missions, such as the Reusable Launch Vehicle, 1,14,15]
Unified Launch Vehicle and vehicle for interplanetary
missions. Semi-cryogenic engines use a combination of
cryogenic oxidizers and liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Using 2. TYPES OF FUEL INJECTORS
hydrocarbon fuels like refined kerosene at room temperature, Different types of fuel injectors are used depending on their
instead of cryogenic liquid hydrogen, has led to massive operating conditions and mission requirements. For example,
weight reduction, more payload capabilities, higher reliability a throttleable engine may opt for a pintle injector, while a
and reduced complexity. Fuel injector is an important single-use engine might prefer a coaxial swirl injector. Some
component of rocket engines; enhancing fuel injectors and of the common types of fuel injectors are:
optimising fuel injector configurations can lead to significant
improvement in combustion efficiency and engine 1) Pintle Injectors
performance.
2) Shear Coaxial Injectors
Fuel injectors are responsible for mixing fuel and oxidizer in
appropriate proportions to ensure that the engine operates 3) Impinging Injectors
according to its mission profile with highest possible
efficiency. An engine’s mission requirements are the primary 4) Swirl Injectors
factor in deciding the appropriate fuel injector, such as pintle,
shear coaxial,impinging injectors, etc. Each injector offers 5) Multi-Element Injectors
unique advantages and challenges based on operational
6) Triplet Injectors
conditions and mission requirements. For example, pintle
injectors are known for their simplicity and robust Multi-element injectors and triplet injectors are beyond the
performance, while shear coaxial injectors are preferred for scope of this research paper.

© 2024, IJSREM | www.ijsrem.com DOI: 10.55041/IJSREM36664 | Page 1

 International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM)
Volume: 08 Issue: 07 | July - 2024 SJIF Rating: 8.448 ISSN: 2582-3930

2.1 Pintle Injectors ● Reliability

Pintle injectors are the most common type of fuel injector
used in the modern rocket engines. Pintle injector works on ● Versatility
the principle of a central pintle that moves axially within an
annular orifice, which allows for variable propellant flow and Disadvantages of Pintle Injectors
better atomization of propellant, leading to higher combustion
efficiency. The fuel is injected through the central pintle, ● Potential for Flow Separation
while the oxidizer flows through the annular orifice. They’re
● Limited Applicability for High-Pressure System
known for their combustion stability and reliability. One of
their unique features is that these injectors prevent the leftover ● Thrust Oscillations
propellant in the pipes from mixing once the engine has been
turned off. Pintle injectors have gained popularity due to the ● Complex Control Requirements
rise of reusable launch vehicles, which usually require
throttleable engines. [Refer reference 7,11,12]

Methodology:

Pintle injectors are used to inject cryogenic liquid propellants

into the combustion chamber. They exhibit a greater
throttling range than others by creating a self-stabilized stream
pattern along with some rare acoustic ignition instabilities.
The flow characteristics of pintle injector is studied by
proposing a spray model based on previous works, and then a
model of discharge coefficient is also derived. Result shows
that the pintle injector forms an arch cloak-like spray. The
pintle injector has demonstrated its effectiveness in atomizing
and mixing propellant in rocket engines. It has also inherent
protection from combustion instability(an investigation shows
that total momentum ratio has never experienced combustion
instability in any of its pintle injector equipped engines).
Pintle injectors are one of the excellent injector for liquid
rocket engines. Generally, the thrust chamber has only one
pintle injector. Therefore, the flow rate in the combustion
chamber is not uniform, which differs from the thrust chamber
equipped by traditional injector. Previous investigations
suggest that recirculation of flow pattern inside combustion
chamber is extremely important for combustion, it also
maintains stability in combustion. Spray pattern also plays a
Figure 2.1 : Design of a Pintle fuel injector [refer to crucial role. It determines both recirculation zones and flame
reference 15,16] structure. Accordingly, the characteristics of flow and spray
are key features dominating the combustion process inside
Components of Pintle injectors are: pintle injector engines.

1) Pintle: This moves axially to provide variable thrust 2.2 Impinging Injectors
by controlling the flow of the propellant into the
combustion chamber. It gives precision over Impinging injectors have been utilized in many classic rocket
propellant mixture ratio and flow rate. engines, particularly in the early era. These injectors work on
the principle of collision of multiple propellant jets at high
2) Annular Orifice : It surrounds the central pintle and speed in the combustion chamber. This leads to enhanced
is the main passageway for the oxidizer to flow into atomization and improved mixing of propellants. Impinging
the combustion chamber. injectors have many different variations and geometry, such as
unlike Impinging Injectors, like Impinging Injectors, doublet
3) Actuator : It moves the central pintle and can be Impinging Injectors,etc., but they are generally considered to
hydraulically/electrically actuated. be simpler than other types of injectors. [Refer reference
1,9,14]
4) Fuel and Oxidizer Manifolds

Advantages of Pintle injectors:

● Variable Mixture Ratio Control

● Stable Combustion

© 2024, IJSREM | www.ijsrem.com DOI: 10.55041/IJSREM36664 | Page 2

 International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM)
Volume: 08 Issue: 07 | July - 2024 SJIF Rating: 8.448 ISSN: 2582-3930

conducting sensitivity analyses to understand the impact of

parameter variations on injector performance.

2.3 Swirl Injector

Many semi-cryogenic engines employ swirl injectors, which

works on the principle of providing a tangential velocity to the
propellant flow. The propellant retains its tangential flow until
it exits the injector throat, thus forming a cone-like
structure.This swirling motion enhances the mixing of
propellants, atomization, and uniform distribution of
propellants, earning the injector its name.

[Refer reference 1, 2,10]

Figure 2.2 : Different types of impinging injector [Refer to reference
1,20]

Components of Impinging Injectors are

1) Fuel and Oxidizer jets : They provide a path to the

propellant before they mix

2) Injector Faceplate : The faceplate is designed with

precise holes and angles to ensure that the fuel and
oxidizer jets collide at the optimal point for mixing
and atomization.

Advantages:

● Scalability

● Cost-Effectiveness

● Design Flexibility

Disadvantages:

● Complex Manufacturing

● Potential for Clogging Figure 2.3 : Schematic of swirl injector [Refer to reference 21]

● Thermal Management Issues Components of Swirl Injector are

● Design Complexity for Optimal Performance: 1) Swirl Chamber: The propellant holes are drilled at an
incline, so as to provide them with the necessary
● Propellant Compatibility tangential velocity. This chamber provides the flow
with a swirling motion.
Methodology:
2) Orifice: It allows the swirling propellant flow into
Impinging injectors are tested to observe jet collision and
the combustion chamber
atomization. Flow rate, pressure drops, and thermal
management parameters are measured to evaluate 3) Injector Faceplate: It supports the orifice and swirl
performances. Analysing impinging injector is often modelled chamber
using momentum conservation equations and turbulence
theories. In the design of experiments, key parameters such as Advantages
injector orifice size, impingement angle, and fluid properties
are varied within a controlled test rig equipped with precise ● Improved Mixing
measurement instruments. Experimental procedures include
executing trials under defined conditions, and safely ● Efficient Cooling
collecting data on spray characteristics. Data analysis
encompasses processing raw measurements, employing ● Compact Design
statistical techniques to assess droplet size distributions, and
visualising spray patterns. Results are interpreted by ● Fuel Flexibility
comparing experimental data with theoretical predictions and
● Improved Ignition
previous studies, identifying potential sources of error, and

© 2024, IJSREM | www.ijsrem.com DOI: 10.55041/IJSREM36664 | Page 3

 International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM)
Volume: 08 Issue: 07 | July - 2024 SJIF Rating: 8.448 ISSN: 2582-3930

Disadvantages

● Precision Requirements

● Increased Pressure Drop

● Thermal Stress

● Sensitivity to Flow Variations

● Combustion Instability

Methodology:

Swirl injectors are analyzed using computational fluid

dynamics (CFD) simulation to optimise the swirl chamber and
Figure 2.4 : Schematic of a shear coaxial injector [Refer to reference
orifice design. Experimental validation involves measuring
22]
atomization quality, pressure drop and combustion efficiency.
These injectors reduce the thickness of boundary layers. Swirl
injectors in semi-cryogenic rocket engines involve a
methodical approach aimed at enhancing combustion Components of Shear Coaxial Injector are :
efficiency and stability. Swirl is induced either through
injector head design or pre-chamber configurations, aiming to 1) Central Orifice: Helps the oxidizer to reach till the
promote better mixing of propellants within the combustion combustion chamber
chamber. Experimental validation through hot-fire tests is
crucial to validate CFD predictions, assessing parameters like 2) Annular Orifice: Helps the liquid hydrocarbon fuel to
combustion stability, temperature profiles, and thrust reach till the combustion chamber
characteristics. Iterative refinement based on experimental
data allows for fine-tuning of swirl injector performance, 3) Injector Faceplate: Provides structural integrity and
optimizing specific impulse and overall engine efficiency. holds the orifice
Ultimately, this integrated approach advances understanding
and application of swirl injectors in semi-cryogenic rocket 4) Cooling Chamber
engines.Swirl injectors are used in oxidizer-rich staged
combustion cycle engines. A pressure swirl injector with
tangential inlet flow is widely used in liquid rocket engines. Advantages
2.4 Shear Coaxial Injector ● Variable Thrust Capabilities
Shear Coaxial injector are quite unique in their functioning ● Stable combustion
compared to other injectors mentioned above. The working
principle of these injectors is to create a velocity difference ● Reduced coking
between the fuel and oxidizer flows, generating the shear
force between the two streams, forcing the propellant to break Disadvantages
into fine droplets. This leads to better atomization and
thorough mixing of fuels. The injector consists of a central ● Sensitivity to Flow Variations
orifice and an annular orifice. Generally, oxidizer flows
through the central orifice while fuel flows through annular ● Thermal stress
orifice.

It should be noted that in shear coaxial injector, there is no

tangential velocity given to the propellant, unlike swirl Methodology:
injector. [Refer reference 1,2,9]
Shear coaxial injectors are tested using both experimental
setup and numerical simulation. The velocity profile for fuel
and oxidizer streams are measured, along with droplets sizes
and spray pattern. Combustion tests are conducted to measure
stability and efficiency. Advantages of shear coaxial injectors
are in their simplicity, rather good atomization and uniformity
of combustible mixtures. In the hydrogen temperature
ramping test one or more injectors are placed in a combustion
chamber and hot fired while the temperature of the gaseous
hydrogen being injected is slowly reduced until a spontaneous
instability occurs. The physical significance of the hydrogen
temperature ramping technique comes from the atomization
process occurring in coaxial injector where the high velocity

© 2024, IJSREM | www.ijsrem.com DOI: 10.55041/IJSREM36664 | Page 4

 International Journal of Scientific Research in Engineering and Management (IJSREM)
Volume: 08 Issue: 07 | July - 2024 SJIF Rating: 8.448 ISSN: 2582-3930

outer gaseous hydrogen flow strips droplets from the lower 3. CONCLUSION
velocity inner liquid oxygen flow. Experiments at ONERA The review shows that mission-specific criteria and operating
using water as a liquid oxygen simulant have shown that a conditions play a major role in fuel injector selection for a
higher relative velocity between the two flows, one gaseous semi-cryogenic rocket engine. Every type of injector has
and other liquid, results in smaller droplets. Lowering the particular benefits and drawbacks.
gaseous hydrogen temperature increases its density, thus
lowering its injection velocity relative to the liquid in order to Because of their ease of use, dependability, and compatibility
maintain the same mass flow and therefore the same fuel-to- with throttleable engines—particularly in reusable launch
oxidizer ratio. Wanhainen et al have shown that it is not the vehicles—pintle injectors are preferred.
hydrogen temperature itself causing the transition to
instability but the ratio of the gas to liquid injection velocity. Although impinging injectors are known for being easy to use
From this one might infer that the instability resulted from a and reasonably priced, they need to be carefully designed to
decline in droplet burning efficiency because of an increase in prevent clogging and problems with heat control.
the liquid oxygen drop size along with an extension in the
length of the atomization zone. A primary purpose of the Although swirl injectors provide better mixing and cooling,
experiment is to identify what effect the velocity ratio has on there are production challenges including the possibility of
atomization and pressure drop across the injector to provide a combustion instability.
better understanding of this common stability rating
technique. It is imperative to take into account many elements such as
performance, reliability, and design complexity when
2. RESULT choosing a fuel injector configuration, as they must be in line
with the mission profile and engine requirements.
The following important conclusions are drawn from the
examination of fuel injectors in various configurations in a
semi-cryogenic rocket engine:

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