Chapter 3.

Boolean Algebra (Part 2)

 Outline

◆ Multiplying Out and Factoring expressions

◆ Exclusive-OR (XOR) and Equivalence Operations
◆ Consensus Theorem
◆ Algebraic Simplification of Switching Expressions
◆ Proving the Validity of an Equation

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 3.1 Multiplying Out and Factoring Expressions (1)

To obtain a sum-of-products form ➔ Multiplying out using distributive laws

X (Y + Z ) = XY + XZ
( X + Y )( X + Z ) = X + YZ

Theorem for multiplying out: ( X + Y )( X ' + Z ) = XZ + X ' Y (3-3)

If X=0, (3-3) reduces to Y(1+Z) = 0+1*Y or Y=Y.

If X=1, (3-3) reduces to (1+Y)Z = Z+0*Y or Z=Z.

Because the equation is valid for both X=0 and X=1, it is always valid.

Theorem for factoring: A B + A ' C = ( A + C )( A '+ B )

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 3.1 Multiplying Out and Factoring Expressions (2)

Theorem for multiplying out: (Q + AB' )(C ' D +Q' ) = QC' D +Q' AB'

Multiplying out
using distributive laws (Q + AB' )(C' D + Q' ) = QC ' D + QQ'+ AB' C' D + AB' Q'

Redundant terms
multiplying out: (1) distributive laws (2) theorem (3-3)

( A + B +C ' )( A + B + D )( A + B + E )( A + D' +E )( A' +C )

= ( A + B +C ' D )( A + B + E )[ AC + A' ( D' +E )]

= ( A + B +C ' DE )( AC + A' D' +A' E )

= AC + ABC + A' BD' +A' BE + A' C ' DE (3-4)

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 3.1 Multiplying Out and Factoring Expressions (3)

To obtain a product-of-sums form ➔ Factoring using distributive laws

Theorem for factoring: A B + A ' C = ( A + C )( A '+ B )

Example of factoring: AC + A' BD' +A' BE + A' C ' DE

= AC + A' ( BD' +BE +C ' DE )
XZ X' Y
= ( A + BD' +BE +C ' DE )( A' +C )
= [ A +C ' DE + B( D' +E )]( A' +C )
X Y Z
= ( A + B +C ' DE )( A +C ' DE + D' +E )( A' +C )
= ( A + B +C ' )( A + B + D )( A + B + E )( A + D' +E )( A' +C ) (3-5)

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3.2 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations (1)

Exclusive-OR
00 = 0 0 1 = 1
XOR 1 0 = 1 1 1 = 0

Truth Table XY XY

00 0
01 1
10 1
11 0

Symbol

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 3.2 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations (2)

Theorems for Exclusive-OR: XY XY

X 0 = X 00 0
01 1
X 1 = X ' 10 1
X X =0 11 0

X  X '= 1
X Y = Y  X (commutative law)
( X  Y )  Z = X  (Y  Z ) = X  Y  Z (associative law)
X (Y  Z ) = XY  XZ (distributive law)
( X  Y )' = X  Y' = X'  Y = XY + X'Y'

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3.2 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations (3)

Equivalence operation (0  0) = 1 (0  1) = 0
(Exclusive-NOR, XNOR)
(1  0) = 0 (1  1) = 1

Truth Table XY
XY
00 1
01 0
10 0
11 1

XNOR

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Multi-input Gates

F = 1 if all inputs are 1

F = 0 if all inputs are 0

F = 1 if the number of 1’s in inputs is odd

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 Complexity of logic expression

◆ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷

Eight 2-input gates for 9-literal expression

Expression complexity in 2-input gates = (No. of literals in SOP) - 1

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 3.2 Exclusive-OR and Equivalence Operations (4)

Example of XOR and Equivalence: F = ( A' B  C ) + ( B  AC ' )

F = [( A' B)C + ( A' B)' C ' ] + [ B' ( AC ' ) + B( AC ' )' ]

= A' BC + ( A + B' )C '+ AB ' C '+ B( A'+C )
= B( A' C + A'+C ) + C ' ( A + B'+ AB ' ) = B( A'+C ) + C ' ( A + B' )

Useful theorem: ( XY '+ X 'Y )' = XY + X 'Y ' (3-19)

A' B  C = [ A' B'+( A' )' B]  C

= ( A' B'+ AB )C '+( A' B'+ AB )' C (by (3-6))

= ( A' B'+ AB )C '+( A' B + AB ' )C (by (3-19))

= A' B' C '+ ABC '+ A' BC + AB ' C
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 3.3 Consensus Theorem (1)
Consensus Theorem XY + X ' Z + YZ = XY + X ' Z

Proof : XY + X ' Z + YZ = XY + X ' Z + ( X + X ' )YZ

= ( XY + XYZ ) + ( X ' Z + X ' YZ )
= XY (1 + Z ) + X ' Z (1 + Y ) = XY + X ' Z
consensus
Example:
a' b'+ac + bc'+b' c + ab = a' b'+ac + bc'

consensus

Dual form of consensus theorem ( X + Y )( X '+Z )(Y + Z ) = ( X + Y )( X '+Z )

Example: consensus

(a + b + c' )(a + b + d ' )(b + c + d ' ) = (a + b + c' )(b + c + d ' )

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 3.3 Consensus Theorem (2)

Example: eliminate BCD A' C' D + A' BD + BCD + ABC + ACD '

Example: eliminate A’BD, ABC A' C' D + A' BD + BCD + ABC + ACD '

Example: Reducing an expression by adding a term.

F = ABCD + B' CDE + A' B'+ BCE '

F = ABCD + B' CDE + A' B'+ BCE '+ ACDE

Consensus
Term added
Final expression F = A' B'+ BCE '+ ACDE

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 3.4 Algebraic Simplification of Switching Expressions (1)

1. Combining terms XY + XY ' = X

Example: abc' d '+abcd ' = abd' [ X = abd' , Y = c]
(a + bc)(d + e' ) + a ' (b'+ c' )(d + e' ) = d + e'
[ X = d + e' , Y = a + bc, Y ' = a ' (b'+c' )]
2. Adding terms using X+X =X
Example: ab' c + abc + a' bc = ab' c + abc + abc + a' bc = ac + bc

3. Eliminating terms X + XY = X XY + X ' Z + YZ = XY + X ' Z

Example: a' b + a' bc = a' b [ X = a' b]
a ' bc '+bcd + a ' bd = a ' bc '+bcd [ X = c, Y = bd , Z = a' b]

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 3.4 Algebraic Simplification of Switching Expressions (2)

4. Eliminating literals X + X 'Y = X +Y

Example: A' B + A' B' C ' D'+ ABCD ' = A' ( B + B' C ' D' ) + ABCD '
= A' ( B + C ' D' ) + ABCD '
= B( A'+ ACD ' ) + A' C ' D'
= B( A'+CD ' ) + A' C ' D'
= A' B + BCD '+ A' C ' D'
5. Adding redundant terms
(Adding xx’, multiplying (x+x’), adding yz to xy+x’z, adding xy to x, etc…)

Example: WX + XY + X ' Z '+WY ' Z ' (add WZ’ by consensus theorem)

= WX + XY + X ' Z '+WY ' Z '+WZ ' (eliminate WY’Z’)
= WX + XY + X ' Z '+WZ ' (eliminate WZ’)
= WX + XY + X ' Z ' (3-27)
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 3.5 Proving Validity of an Equation (1)

Proving an equation valid

1. Construct a truth table and evaluate both sides – tedious, not elegant method
2. Manipulate one side by applying theorems until it is the same as the other side
3. Reduce both sides of the equation independently until they become equal to
each other.
4. Apply the same operation in both sides
- complement both sides
- multiplication (AND), addition (OR) are not permissible.

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 3.5 Proving Validity of an Equation (2)

Prove : A' BD'+ BCD + ABC '+ AB' D = BC ' D'+ AD + A' BC
= A' BD'+ BCD + ABC '+ AB' D + BC ' D'+ A' BC + ABD
(add consensus of A’BD’ and ABC’)
(add consensus of A’BD’ and BCD)
(add consensus of BCD and ABC’)

= AD + A' BD'+ BCD + ABC '+ BC ' D'+ A' BC = BC ' D'+ AD + A' BC
(eliminate consensus of BC’D’ and AD)
(eliminate consensus of AD and A’BC)
(eliminate consensus of BC’D’ and A’BC)

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 3.5 Proving Validity of an Equation (3)

Some of Boolean Algebra are not true for ordinary algebra

Example: If x + y = x + z, then y=z True in ordinary algebra

1 + 0 = 1 + 1 but 0  1 Not True in Boolean algebra

Example: If xy = xz , then y=z Mostly true in ordinary algebra

0  0 = 0 1 but 0  1 Mostly not true in Boolean algebra

Example: If y = z, then x+y = x+z True in ordinary algebra

If y = z, then xy = xz True in Boolean algebra

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