Heavy metal toxicity of drinking water: A silent killer

Vijay Dahiya *

Yamunanagar, Hariyana, India.

GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

Publication history: Received on 08 February 2022; revised on 19 March 2022; accepted on 21 March 2022

Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2022.19.1.0107

Abstract
Heavy metal toxicity has proven to be a major threat and there are several health risks associated with it. The toxic
effects of these metals, even though they do not have any biological role, remain present in some or the other form
harmful for the human body and its proper functioning.

Heavy metals are generally referred to as those metals which possess a specific density of more than 5 g/cm 3 and
adversely affect the environment and living organisms. These metals are essential to maintain various biochemical and
physiological functions in living organisms when in very low concentrations, however they become noxious when they
exceed certain threshold concentrations. The most commonly found heavy metals in waste water include arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, and copper, lead, nickel, and zinc, all of which cause risks for human health and the environment.
Heavy metals enter the surroundings by natural means and through human activities. Various sources of heavy metals
include soil erosion, natural weathering of the earth's crust, mining, industrial effluents, urban runoff, sewage discharge,
insect or disease control agents applied to crops etc.

Some heavy metals, i.e. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, aluminium causes drastic harmful effect on the
environment and living organisms, mainly human beings.

Keywords: Heavy metals; Toxicity; Water pollution; Cadmium toxicity; Arsenic; Mercury; Chromium

1. Introduction
Water pollution occurs when harmful substance like chemicals or microorganism contaminate a stream, river, lake,
ocean, underground water, or other body of water, hence degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or
the environment.

According to the most recent surveys on national water quality from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), nearly
half of the rivers and streams and more than one-third of lakes are polluted and unfit for swimming, fishing, and drinking
even in developed countries and situation is even worst in developing countries contribute Major share of toxins to the
water bodies is contributed by municipal and industrial waste discharges , besides the random junk that industry and
individuals dump directly into waterways.

When contamination originates from a single source, it’s called point source pollution, like wastewater (also called
effluent) discharged legally or illegally by a manufacturer, oil refinery, or wastewater treatment facility, as well as
contamination from leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills, and illegal dumping. The EPA regulates point source
pollution by establishing limits on what can be discharged by a facility directly into a body of water. While point source
pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect miles of waterways and ocean.


Corresponding author: Vijay Dahiya
Yamunanagar, Hariyana, India.
Copyright © 2022 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0.
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets inform of sewage and from commercial,
industrial, and agricultural activities as toxic sludge having metals and solvents etc.

According to the United Nations, More than 80 percent of the world’s wastewater flows back into the environment
without being treated or reused and this figure tops to 95 percent in some least-developed countries.

To put it bluntly it can be said that Water pollution kills. In fact, it causes millions of deaths each year globally.
Contaminated water can also make you ill. Every year, unsafe water sickens about 1 billion people. And low-income
communities are disproportionately at risk because their homes are often closest to the most polluting industries.

Waterborne pathogens, in the form of disease-causing bacteria and viruses from human and animal waste, are a major
cause of illness from contaminated drinking water. Diseases spread by unsafe water include cholera, giardia, and
typhoid, salmonellosis, or shigellosis dysentery, hepatitis etc. Even in wealthy nations, accidental or illegal releases from
sewage treatment facilities, as well as runoff from farms and urban areas, contribute harmful pathogens to waterways.
Millions of people across the world are sickened every year by severe water borne diseases. While acute illnesses like
diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis A, typhoid can manifest early due to their symptoms and public at large and
health care providers are to some extent are aware of these contaminations, it is the heavy metal toxicity which is
becoming a silent killer and major cause of morbidity and mortality to vast number of humanity with the passing time
as the symptoms appear late and patients present in advance stage of disease.

Heavy metal toxicity has proven to be a major threat and there are several health risks associated with it. The toxic
effects of these metals, even though they do not have any biological role, remain present in some or the other form
harmful for the human body and its proper functioning.

Heavy metals are generally referred to as those metals which possess a specific density of more than 5 g/cm 3 and
adversely affect the environment and living organisms. These metals are essential to maintain various biochemical and
physiological functions in living organisms when in very low concentrations, however they become noxious when they
exceed certain threshold concentrations. Although it is acknowledged that heavy metals have many adverse health
effects and last for a long period of time, heavy metal exposure continues and is increasing in many parts of the world.
Heavy metals are significant environmental pollutants and their toxicity is a problem of increasing significance for
ecological, evolutionary, nutritional and environmental reasons. The most commonly found heavy metals in waste water
include arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and copper, lead, nickel, and zinc, all of which cause risks for human health and
the environment. Heavy metals enter the surroundings by natural means and through human activities. Various sources
of heavy metals include soil erosion, natural weathering of the earth's crust, mining, industrial effluents, urban runoff,
sewage discharge, insect or disease control agents applied to crops etc.

These metals bind with protein sites which are not made for them by displacing original metals from their natural
binding sites causing malfunctioning of cells and ultimately toxicity.

2. Effects of heavy metals on humans

There are 35 metals that are of concern for us because of residential or occupational exposure, out of which 23 are heavy
metals: antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, gold, iron, lead, manganese,
mercury, nickel, platinum, silver, tellurium, thallium, tin, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. These heavy metals are
commonly found in the environment and diet. In small amounts they are required for maintaining good health but in
larger amounts they can become toxic or dangerous. Heavy metal toxicity can lower energy levels and damage the
functioning of the brain, lungs, kidney, liver, blood composition and other important organs. Long-term exposure can
lead to gradually progressing physical, muscular, and neurological degenerative processes that imitate diseases such as
multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and muscular dystrophy. Repeated long-term exposure of
some metals and their compounds may even cause cancer. The toxicity level of a few heavy metals can be just above the
background concentrations that are being present naturally in the environment. Hence thorough knowledge of heavy
metals is rather important for allowing to provide proper defensive measures against their excessive contact.

2.1. Arsenic
Arsenic contaminations have occurred as a result of both natural geologic processes and the activities of man.
Anthropogenic sources of arsenic include human activities such as mining and processing of ores. The smelting process,
both the ancient and a recent one, can release arsenic to the air and soil. Such types of sources can affect the quality of
surface water through groundwater ejection and runoff. Another way of ground water contamination is through

21
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

geologic sources such as arsenic minerals. Most of the paints, dyes, soaps, metals, semi-conductors and drugs contain
arsenic. Certain pesticides, fertilizers and animal feeding operations also release arsenic to the environment in higher
amounts. The inorganic forms of arsenic such as arsenite and arsenate are found to be more dangerous to human health.
They are highly carcinogenic and can cause cancer of lungs, liver, bladder and skin. Humans are exposed to arsenic by
means of air, food and water. Drinking water contaminated with arsenic is one of the major causes for arsenic toxicity
in more than 30 countries in the world. If the arsenic level in ground water is 10–100 times the value given in the WHO
guideline for drinking water (10 μg/L), it can be a threat to human health. Water may get contaminated through
improperly disposed arsenical chemicals, arsenical pesticides or by natural mineral deposits. Arsenic toxicity can be
either acute or chronic and chronic arsenic toxicity is termed as arsenicosis. Most of the reports of chronic arsenic
toxicity in man focus on skin manifestations because of its specificity in diagnosis. Pigmentation and keratosis are the
specific skin lesions that indicate chronic arsenic toxicity.

2.2. Lead
Human activities such as mining, manufacturing and fossil fuel burning has resulted in the accumulation of lead and its
compounds in the environment, including air, water and soil. Lead is used for the production of batteries, cosmetics,
metal products such as ammunitions, solder and pipes, etc. Lead is highly toxic and hence its use in various products,
such as paints, gasoline, etc., has been considerably reduced nowadays. The main sources of lead exposure are lead
based paints, gasoline, cosmetics, toys, household dust, contaminated soil, industrial emissions. Lead poisoning was
considered to be a classic disease and the signs that were seen in children and adults were mainly pertaining to the
central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. Lead poisoning can also occur from drinking water. The pipes that
carry the water may be made of lead and its compounds which can contaminate the water. According to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), lead is considered a carcinogen. Lead has major effects on different parts of
the body. Lead distribution in the body initially depends on the blood flow into various tissues and almost 95% of lead
is deposited in the form of insoluble phosphate in skeletal bones. Toxicity of lead, also called lead poisoning, can be
either acute or chronic. Acute exposure can cause loss of appetite, headache, hypertension, abdominal pain, renal
dysfunction, fatigue, sleeplessness, arthritis, hallucinations and vertigo. Acute exposure mainly occurs in the place of
work and in some manufacturing industries which make use of lead. Chronic exposure of lead can result in mental
retardation, birth defects, psychosis, autism, allergies, dyslexia, weight loss, hyperactivity, paralysis, muscular
weakness, brain damage, kidney damage and may even cause death. Although lead poisoning is preventable it still
remains a dangerous disease which can affect most of the organs. The plasma membrane moves into the interstitial
spaces of the brain when the blood brain barrier is exposed to elevated levels of lead concentration, resulting in a
condition called edema. It disrupts the intracellular second messenger systems and alters the functioning of the central
nervous system, whose protection is highly important.

2.3. Mercury
Mercury is considered the most toxic heavy metal in the environment. Mercury poisoning is referred to as acrodynia or
pink disease. Mercury is released into the environment by the activities of various industries such as pharmaceuticals,
paper and pulp preservatives, agriculture industry, and chlorine and caustic soda production industry. Mercury has the
ability to combine with other elements and form organic and inorganic mercury. Exposure to elevated levels of metallic,
organic and inorganic mercury can damage the brain, kidneys and the developing fetus. Mercury is present in most
foods and beverages in the range <1 to 50 μg/kg. In marine foods it is often seen at higher levels. Organic mercury can
easily permeate across the biomembranes and since they are lipophilic in nature, mercury is present in higher
concentrations in most species of fatty fish and in the liver of lean fish. Micro-organisms convert the mercury present
in soil and water into methyl mercury, a toxin which can accumulate with fish age and with increasing trophic levels.
EPA has declared mercuric chloride and methyl mercury to be highly carcinogenic. The nervous system is very sensitive
to all types of mercury. Increased exposure of mercury can alter brain functions and lead to shyness, tremors, memory
problems, irritability, and changes in vision or hearing. Exposure to metallic mercury vapors at higher levels for shorter
periods of time can lead to lung damage, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, skin rashes, increased heart rate or blood pressure.
Symptoms of organic mercury poisoning include depression, memory problems, tremors, fatigue, headache, hair loss,
etc. Since these symptoms are common also in other conditions, it may be difficult to diagnose such cases. Due to the
excess health effects associated with exposure to mercury, the present standard for drinking water has been set at lower
levels of 0.002 mg/L and 0.001 mg/L by the Environmental Protection Act and World Health Organization.

2.4. Cadmium
Cadmium is a metal of the 20th century. It is a byproduct of zinc production. Soils and rocks, including coal and mineral
fertilizers, contain some amount of cadmium. Cadmium has many applications, e.g. in batteries, pigments, plastics and
metal coatings and is widely used in electroplating. Cadmium and its compounds are classified as Group 1 carcinogens

22
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

for humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Cadmium is released into the environment through
natural activities such as volcanic eruptions, weathering, river transport and some human activities such as mining,
smelting, tobacco smoking, incineration of municipal waste, and manufacture of fertilizers. Although cadmium
emissions have been noticeably reduced in most industrialized countries, it is a remaining source of fear for workers
and people living in the polluted areas. Cadmium can cause both acute and chronic intoxications. Cadmium is highly
toxic to the kidney and it accumulates in the proximal tubular cells in higher concentrations. Cadmium can cause bone
mineralization either through bone damage or by renal dysfunction. Studies on humans and animals have revealed that
osteoporosis (skeletal damage) is a critical effect of cadmium exposure along with disturbances in calcium metabolism,
formation of renal stones and hypercalciuria. Inhaling higher levels of cadmium can cause severe damage to the lungs.
If cadmium is ingested in higher amounts, it can lead to stomach irritation and result in vomiting and diarrhea. On very
long exposure time at lower concentrations, it can become deposited in the kidney and finally lead to kidney disease,
fragile bones and lung damage. Cadmium and its compounds are highly water soluble compared to other metals. Their
bioavailability is very high and hence it tends to bioaccumulate. Long-term exposure to cadmium can result in
morphopathological changes in the kidneys. Smokers are more susceptible for cadmium intoxication than non-smokers.
Tobacco is the main source of cadmium uptake in smokers as tobacco plants, like other plants, can accumulate cadmium
from the soil. Non-smokers are exposed to cadmium via food and some other pathways. Premature birth and reduced
birth weights are the issues that arise if cadmium exposure is high during human pregnancy.

2.5. Chromium
Chromium is present in rocks, soil, animals and plants. It can be solid, liquid, and in the form of gas. Chromium
compounds are very much persistent in water sediments. They can occur in many different states such as divalent, four-
valent, five-valent and hexavalent state. Cr (VI) and Cr (III) are the most stable forms and only their relation to human
exposure is of high interest. Chromium (VI) compounds, such as calcium chromate, zinc chromates, strontium chromate
and lead chromates, are highly toxic and carcinogenic in nature. Chromium (III), on the other hand, is an essential
nutritional supplement for animals and humans and has an important role in glucose metabolism. The uptake of
hexavalent chromium compounds through the airways and digestive tract is faster than that of trivalent chromium
compounds. Occupational sources of chromium include protective metal coatings, metal alloys, magnetic tapes, paint
pigments, rubber, cement, paper, wood preservatives, leather tanning and metal plating. It has been reported that
cigarettes contained 390 g/kg of Cr, but there has been no significant report published on the amount of chromium
inhaled through smoking. When broken skin comes in contact with any type of chromium compounds, a deeply
penetrating hole will be formed. Exposure to chromium compounds can result in the formation of ulcers, which will
persist for months and heal very slowly. Ulcers on the nasal septum are very common in case of chromate workers.
Exposure to higher amounts of chromium compounds in humans can lead to the inhibition of erythrocyte glutathione
reductase, which in turn lowers the capacity to reduce methemoglobin to hemoglobin. Results obtained from different
in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that chromate compounds can induce DNA damage in many different ways
and can lead to the formation of DNA adducts, chromosomal aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges, alterations in
replication and transcription of DNA.

2.6. Aluminium
Aluminium is the third most common element found on the earth's crust. The main routes of aluminium consumption
by humans are through inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact and sources of exposure are drinking water, food,
beverages, and Aluminium containing drugs. Aluminium is naturally present in food. Aluminium and its compounds are
poorly absorbed in humans, although the rate at which they get absorbed has not been clearly studied. Symptoms that
indicate the presence of higher amounts of Aluminium in the human body are nausea, mouth ulcers, skin ulcers, skin
rashes, vomiting, diarrhea and arthritic pain. Aluminium exposure is probably a risk factor for the onset of Alzheimer
disease (AD) in humans, as hypothesized by the WHO. Contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis were seen in persons
who were exposed to aluminium in their place of work. Aluminium showed adverse effects on the nervous system and
resulted in loss of memory, problems with balance and loss of co-ordination. People suffering from kidney diseases find
it difficult to eliminate aluminium from the body, resulting in aluminium accumulation in the body leading to bone and
brain damage. Some factors that would likely be the reason for the development of aluminium toxicity are life in dusty
environments, long-term intravenous nutrition, and diminished kidney function, hemodialysis, drinking or ingesting
substances that are high in aluminium content, working in an environment that contains high levels of aluminium.
Higher levels of aluminium exposure can change the evolution of secondary hyperparathyroidism, leading to other
diseases such as aluminium-induced a dynamic bone disease and aluminium-induced osteomalacia, both of which are
characterized by low-bone remodeling. Some of the other complications associated with aluminium toxicity are lung
problems, anemia, impaired iron absorption, nervous system problems, etc.

23
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

3. Conclusion
Hence it is concluded that some heavy metals, i.e. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, aluminium causes drastic
harmful effect on the environment and living organisms, mainly human beings. Effective legislation, guidelines and
detection of the areas where there are higher levels of heavy metals contamination are necessary. Failure to control the
exposure will result in severe complications in the future because of the adverse effects imposed by heavy metals.
Monitoring the exposure and probable intervention for reducing additional exposure to heavy metals in the
environment and in humans can become a momentous step towards prevention of potentially killer diseases and safety
of humanity at large.

References
[1] Ali H, Khan E, Ilahi I. Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: Environmental
persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Journal of Chemistry. 2019;2019:6730305. DOI:
10.1155/2019/6730305
[2] Jiao Z, Li H, Song M, Wang L. Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in water and sediment of the Pearl River
estuary, China. Materials Science and Engineering. 2018;394:052055. DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/394/5/052055
[3] Nizami G, Rehman S. Assessment of heavy metals and their effects on quality of water of rivers of Uttar Pradesh,
India: A review. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2018;2:65-71
[4] Li L, Yang X. The essential element manganese, oxidative stress, and metabolic diseases: Links and interactions.
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2018;2018:7580707. DOI: 10.1155/2018/.580707
[5] Zwolak A, Sarzyńska M, Szpyrka E, Stawarczyk K. Sources of soil pollution by heavy metals and their accumulation
in vegetables: A review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 2019;230:164. DOI: 10.1007/s11270-019-4221-y
[6] Paul D. Research on heavy metal pollution of river ganga: A review. Annals of Agrarian Science. 2017;15:278-286
[7] Toth G, Hermann T, Da Silva MR, Montanerella L. Heavy metals in agricultural soils of the European Union with
implications for food safety. Environment International. 2016;88:299-309
[8] Galitskaya IV, Rama Mohan K, Keshav Krishna A, Batral GI, Eremina ON, Putilina VS, et al. Assessment of soil and
groundwater contamination by heavy metals and metalloids in Russian and Indian megacities. Procedia Earth
and Planetary Science. 2017;17:674-677
[9] Ahmed MK, Parvin E, Islam MM, Akter MS, Khan S, Al-Mamun MH. Lead- and cadmium-induced histopathological
changes in gill, kidney and liver tissue of freshwater climbing perch Anabas testudineus (Bloch, 1792). Chemistry
and Ecology. 2014;30:532-540
[10] Wei J, Duan M, Li Y, et al. Concentration and pollution assessment of heavy metals within surface sediments of
the Raohe Basin, China. The Scientific Reporters. 2019;9:13100. DOI: 10.1038/s 415 98-019-49724-7
[11] Fatima S, Hussain I, Rasool A, Xiao T, Farooqi A. Comparison of two alluvial aquifers shows the probable role of
river sediments on the release of arsenic in the groundwater of district Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan. Environmental
Earth Sciences. 2018;77:382. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-018-7542-z
[12] Jiang Z, Li P, Tu J, Wei D, Zhang R, Wang Y, et al. Arsenic in geothermal systems of Tengchong, China: Potential
contamination on freshwater resources. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 2018;128:28-35. DOI:
10.1016/j.ibiod.2016.05.013
[13] Bansal OP. Heavy metals in soil, plants as influenced by irrigation with sewage effluents: A 20 year study. Journal
of Indian Association for Environmental Management. 2008;35:143-148
[14] Chika OC, Prince EA. Comparative assessment of trace and heavy metals in available drinking water from
different sources in the Centre of Lagos and off town (Ikorodu LGA) of Lagos state, Nigeria. Advanced Journal of
Chemistry, Section A. 2020;3(1):94-104
[15] Kwaya MY, Hamidu H, Kachalla M, Abdullahi IM. Preliminary ground and surface water resources trace elements
concentration, toxicity and statistical evaluation in part of Yobe State, North Eastern Nigeria. Geosciences.
2017;7:117-128. DOI: 10.5923/j.geo.20170704.02
[16] Aloke C, Uzuegbu IE, Ogbu PN, Ugwuja EL, Orinya OF, Obasi IO. Comparative assessment of heavy metals in
drinking water sources from Enyigba Community in Abakaliki Local Government Area, Ebonyi state, Nigeria.
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2019;13:149-154

24
 GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2022, 19(01), 020–025

[17] Kacholi DS, Sahu M. Levels and health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil, water, and vegetables of Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of Chemistry. 2018;2018:1402674. DOI: 10.1155/2018/1402674
[18] Chakraborti D, Singh S, Rahman M, Dutta R, Mukherjee S, Pati S, et al. Groundwater arsenic contamination in the
Ganga River basin: A future health danger. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.
2018;15:180. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15020180
[19] Ramachandran A, Krishnamurthy RR. Jayaprakash M, Balasubramanian M: Concentration of heavy metal in
surface water and groundwater Adyar River basin, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. IOSR Journal of Applied Geology
and Geophysics. 2018;6:29-35
[20] Rana A, Bhardwaj SK, Thakur M, Verma S. Assessment of heavy metals in surface and ground water sources under
different land uses in mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh. International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress
Management. 2016;7(3):461-465. DOI: 10.5958/0976-4038.2016.00074.9
[21] Godwin AOM, Chinenye NG. Bioaccumulation of selected heavy metals in water, sediment and blue crab
(Callinectes amnicola) from Bodo Creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Fisheries Science. 2016;10(3):77-83
[22] Wasike PW, Nawiri MP, Wanyonyi AA. Levels of heavy metals (Pb, Mn, Cu and Cd) in water from river Kuywa and
the adjacent wells. Environment and Ecology Research. 2019;7:135-138. DOI: 10.13189/eer.2019.070303
[23] Kwaya MY, Hamidu H, Mohammed I, Abdulmumini N, Adamu IH, Grema M, et al. Heavy metals pollution indices
and multivariate statistical evaluation of groundwater quality of Maru town and environs. Journal of Materials
and Environmental Science. 2019;10:32-44
[24] Deda A, Alushllari M, Mico S. Measurement of heavy metals in ground water. AIP Conference Proceedings.
2019;2109:100001-100004. DOI:10.1063/1.5110136
[25] Withanachchi SS, Ghambashidze G, Kunchulia I, Urushadze T, Ploeger A. Water quality in surface water: A
preliminary assessment of heavy metal contamination of the Mashavera River, Georgia. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018;15(4):621. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040621
[26] Khan MI, Khisroon M, Khan A, Gulfam N, Siraj M, Zaidi F, et al. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in water,
sediments, and tissues and their histopathological effects on Anodonta cygnea (Linea, 1876) in Kabul River,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. BioMed Research International. 2018;2018:1910274. DOI:
10.1155/2018/1910274
[27] Singh H, Pandey R, Singh SK, Shukla DN. Assessment of heavy metal contamination in the sediment of the river
Ghaghara, a major tributary of the river ganga in northern India. Applied Water Science. 2017;7:4133-4149
[28] Khan MZH, Hasan MR, Khan M, Aktar S, Fatema K. Distribution of heavy metals in surface sediments of the Bay of
Bengal coast. Journal of Toxicology. 2017;2017:9235764. DOI: 10.1155/2017/9235764
[29] Martins VV, Zanetti MOB, Pitondo-Silva A, Stehling EG. Aquatic environments polluted with antibiotics and heavy
metals: A human health hazard. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 2014;21(9):5873-
5878
[30] Vatandoosta M, Naghipoura D, Omidia S, Ashrafia SD. Survey and mapping of heavy metals in groundwater
resources around the region of the Anzali international wetland; a dataset. Data in Brief. 2018;18:463-469
[31] Sepahy AA, Sharifian S, Zolfaghari MR, Dermany MK, Rashedi H. Study on heavy metal resistant fecal coliforms
isolated from industrial, urban wastewater in Arak, Iran. International Journal of Environmental Research.
2015;9(4):1217-1224.
[32] Manegabe BJ, Marie-Médiatrice NK, Barr Dewar J, Christian SB. Antibiotic resistance and tolerance to heavy
metals demonstrated by environmental pathogenic bacteria isolated from the Kahwa River, Bukavu town,
Democratic Republic of the Congo. International Journal of Environmental Studies. 2017;74(2):290-302.
[33] Sulieman HMA, Suliman EAM. Appraisal of heavy metal levels in some marine organisms gathered from the Vellar
and Uppanar estuaries southeast coast of Indian Ocean. Journal of Taibah University for Science. 2019;13:338-
343
[34] Ibemenuga KN, Ezike F, Nwosu MC, Anyaegbunam LC, Okoye EI, Eyo JE. Bioaccumulation of some heavy metals
in some organs of three selected fish of commercial importance from Niger River, Onitsha shelf, Anambra state,
Nigeria. Journal of Fisheries Science. 2019;13:001-012.

25