Module-1

Fundamentals of Robotics

Robot anatomy and configuration, basic terminology- accuracy, repeatability,

resolution, degree of freedom. Mechanisms and transmission, end effectors,
Grippers-different methods of gripping and their applications, and introduction
to robot control systems.

Definition of Robot:
The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines a robot as a re-programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through various
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
Simple words: Robotics is a multi-functional, re-programmable, automatic industrial
machine.
Asimov’s laws of robotics: 1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the first or Second Laws.

Components of a Robot:
 Components of a Robot:

A mechanical platform or hardware base is a mechanical device, such as a wheeled

platform, arm, fixed frame, or other construction, capable of interacting with its environment
and any other mechanism involved with its capabilities and uses.
Sensor systems are a special feature that rests on or around the robot. This device would be
able to provide justice to the controller with relevant information about the environment and
give useful feedback to the robot.
Joints provide more versatility to the robot itself and are not just a point that connects two
links or parts that can flex, rotate, revolve and translate. Joints play a very crucial role in the
ability of the robot to move in different directions providing more degree of freedom.
Controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. Robots have controllers that are run by
programs - sets of instructions written in code. In other words, it is a computer used to
command the robot’s memory and logic. So it is able to work independently and
automatically.
Power Source is the main source of energy to fulfill all the robot’s needs. It could be a
source of direct current as a battery, or alternate current from a power plant, solar energy,
hydraulics, or gas.
Artificial intelligence represents the ability of computers to "think" in ways similar to human
beings. Present-day "AI" does allow machines to mimic certain simple human thought
processes, but cannot begin to match the quickness and complexity of the brain. On the other
hand, not all robots possess this type of capability. It requires a lot of programming and
sophisticated controllers and the sensorial ability of the robot to reach this level.
Actuators are the muscles of robots. An actuator is a mechanism for activating process
control equipment by the use of pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic signals. There are several
types of actuators in robotic arms namely synchronous actuator – brush and brushless DC
servo, stepper motor and asynchronous actuator – AC servo motor, traction motor,
pneumatic, and hydraulic.
 Robot Anatomy

Figure 1.1 Joint-link scheme for robot manipulator

Joints and Links: The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and
links. Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of
the manipulator's physical construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two
links of the robot.
Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree of freedom (DOF) of motion. In most cases,
only one degree of freedom is associated with each joint. Therefore, the robot's complexity
can be classified according to the total number of degrees of freedom they possess.
Each joint is connected to two links, an input link, and an output link. Joint provides
controlled relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is the
rigid component of the robot manipulator.
Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor. From this base, a
joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in Figure 1.1. The robotic base and
its connection to the first joint are termed link-0. The first joint in the sequence is joint-1.
Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the output link from joint-1 is link-1 which leads to
joint-2. Thus link 1 is, simultaneously, the output link for joint-1 and the input link for
joint-2.
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into the following
five types as shown in Figure 1.2.
1. Linear joint (type L joint) The relative movement between the input link and the
output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being
parallel
2. Orthogonal joint (type U joint) This is also a translational sliding motion, but the
input and output links are perpendicular to each other during the movement.
3. Rotational joint (type R joint) This type provides rotational relative motion, with the
axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
4. Twisting joint (type T joint) This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis of
rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
5. Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving) In this type, the axis of
the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. However, the axis of the
output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 Robot configuration

Cartesian Configuration Robot

• Arm movement of robot is designed to move parallel to x,y, z axis
• Capable of moving its arm to any point linearly within a rectangular workspace
• Since arm movement is linear, the robot is also called a rectilinear or gantry robot.
Advantages:
• Simple controls due to linear movements
• High degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy, and repeatability
• Can carry heavy loads
• Since movement can start and stop simultaneously along all three axes. The motion of
the wrist end is smoother
Disadvantage:
• The arm movement is limited to a small rectangular workspace
• Occupy large area (low ratio of robot size to operating volume)
Applications:
Assembly, welding, machine loading, unloading, inspection, etc

Cylindrical Configuration Robot

• Consists of a vertical column and a slide that can move up and down along the
column.
• The column can rotate about a vertical axis, hence is capable of achieving a
cylindrical workspace.
Advantages:
• Larger work space than Cartesian configuration
• Relatively easy to program
Disadvantage:
• Overall mechanical rigidity is reduced (since rotating)
• Repeatability and accuracy is also reduced in the direction of rotary movement
• Requires more sophisticated control system than that of cartesian configuration.
Applications:
• Pick and place, machine loading and unloading, assembly and coating.
Polar Configuration (spherical) Robot
• Called spherical configuration (workspace is partial sphere)
• Consists of rotary base and a pivot that can be used to raise and lower a telescopic
arm
• Sliding arm can be extended or retracted to provide reach
Advantages:
• Generate large workspace (envelope) compared to cartesian and cylindrical
• simple in design and easy to program
Disadvantage:
• Reduced mechanical rigidity
• Limited vertical movement
• Requires a more sophisticated control system than that of cartesian and cylindrical
configuration.
Applications:
• Pick and place, machine loading and unloading, casting, injection molding etc.

Jointed Arm Configuration Robot

• Similar to a human arm, consists of two straight components corresponding to the
human forearm and upper arm mounted on a vertical pedestal that can be rotated
about the base.
• Provides a quasi-spherical workspace.
Advantages:
• Most flexible configuration that enables the arm to move in all directions
• Large workspace
• Versatile configuration
Disadvantage:
• Requires complex programming
• Control actions are difficult, and require more sophisticated control system
• Less stable, as arm approaches maximum reach
Applications:
• Painting, welding, assembly, pick and place, etc.
•
Short notes on the Degree of freedom, accuracy,
repeatability, and resolution
Degree of Freedom (DOF)
A ‘Degree of Freedom’ (DoF) as it relates to robotic arms, is an independent joint that can
provide freedom of movement for the manipulator, either in a rotational or translational
(linear) sense. Every geometric axis that a joint can rotate around or extend along is counted
as a Single Degree of Freedom.

The position and orientation of a rigid body in space are defined by three components of
translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom.
 Six degrees of freedom of movement of a ship

Case study for the ship example:

Translation: Rotation:
Moving up and down (heaving); Tilts forward and backward (pitching);
Moving left and right (swaying); Swivels left and right (yawing);
Moving forward and backward (surging); Pivots side to side (rolling).

Robotic Wrist

Accuracy, Repeatability, and resolution

An industrial robot has many measurable characteristics, which will have a direct impact on
the effectiveness of the robot during the execution of its tasks. The main measurable
characteristics are repeatability and accuracy. The repeatability of a robot might be defined
as its ability to achieve repetition of the same task. On the other hand, accuracy is the
difference (i.e. the error) between the requested task and the obtained task (i.e. the task
actually achieved by the robot).
So, repeatability is doing the same task over and over again, while accuracy is hitting your
target each time.

Geometrically, the position accuracy of the robot for a given position can be defined as being
the distance between the desired position and the centroid position (centroid is the mean
position of all the points in all of the coordinate directions) which is actually achieved after
repetitive movements of the end-effector toward the original desired position.
Repeatability can be defined as the closeness of agreement between several positions reached
by the robot’s end-effector for the same controlled position, repeated several times under the
same conditions. Geometrically, position repeatability can be defined as the radius of the
smallest sphere that encompasses all the positions reached for the same requested position.
 End effectors
Device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the general-purpose robot to
perform a specific task.

Types of End effectors

1. Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during the work cycle
2. Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting
Gripper:
End-effector that holds or grasps an object (in assembly, pick and place operation, and
material handling) to perform some tasks.
Four Major Types of Grippers
1. Mechanical
2. Suction or vacuum cups
3. Magnetized gripper
4. Adhesives
5. Hooks and scoops

1. Mechanical gripper
Mechanical Gripper:
• Holding the part is by friction between fingers and work part. The finger must apply
force that is sufficient for friction to retain the part against gravity
To resist the slippage, the gripper must be designed to exert a force that depends on the
weight of the part, coefficient of friction, and acceleration of part
Mechanical Gripper Actuation:
1. Linkage actuation
2. Gear and rack actuation
3. Cam actuation
4. Screw actuation
Mechanical Gripper Actuation:
1. Linkage actuation
2.Gear and rack actuation

3.Cam actuation
4.Screw actuation
Mechanical Grippers
Mechanical grippers are used to pick up, move, place, or hold parts in an automated system.
They can be used in harsh or dangerous

VACUUM GRIPPERS: for non-ferrous components with flat and smooth surfaces, grippers
can be built using standard vacuum cups or pads made of rubber-like materials. Not suitable
for components with curved surfaces or with holes.
Vacuum grippers
Vacuum-grippers become in suction cups, the suctions cups is made of rubber. The suction
cups are connected through tubes with under pressure devices for picking up items and for
releasing items air is pumped out into the suction cups. The under pressure can be created
with the following devices:
The vacuum grippers use suction cups (vacuum cups) as pick up devices. There are different
types of suction cups and the cups are generally made of polyurethane or rubber and can be
used at temperatures between -50 and 200 °C. The suction cup can be categorized into four
different types; universal suction cups, flat suction cups with bars, suction cups with bellow
and depth suction cups

Magnetic Grippers:
Magnetic Gripper: used to grip ferrous materials. Magnetic gripper uses a magnetic head to
attract ferrous materials like steel plates. The magnetic head is simply constructed with a
ferromagnetic core and conducting coils. Magnetic grippers are most commonly used in a
robot as end effectors for grasping the ferrous materials. It is another type of handling the
work parts other than the mechanical grippers and vacuum grippers. Types of magnetic
grippers:
• Magnetic grippers work on magnetic objects and therefore are limited in working with
certain metals.
• For maximum effect the magnet needs to have complete contact with the surface of
the metal to be gripped. Any air gaps will reduce the strength of the magnetic force. In
some cases, the shape of the magnet matches the shape of the object
• Electromagnets can be used instead and are operated by a DC electric current and lose
nearly all of their magnetism when the power is turned off.
• Permanent magnets are also used in situations where there is an explosive atmosphere
and sparks from electrical equipment would cause a hazard. Permanent magnets tend
to become demagnetized because of the temperature
Introduction to robot control systems.
Open Loop Control System (Non-servo Robots)
In this kind of control system, the output doesn’t change the action of the control system
otherwise; the working of the system which depends on time is also called the open-loop
control system. It doesn’t have any feedback. It is very simple, needs low maintenance, quick
operation, and cost-effective. The accuracy of this system is low and less dependable. The
main advantages of the open-loop control system are easy, needs less protection; operation of
this system is fast & inexpensive and the disadvantages are, it is reliable and has less
accuracy
 Diagrams for Open loop/ non servo control systems

Closed loop/Servo control

Robot control methods (Broad classification): short notes

a. Limited Sequence Control (open): It is an elementary control type. It is used for simple
motion cycles, such as pick-and place operations. It is implemented by fixing limits or
mechanical stops for each joint and sequencing the movement of joints to accomplish
operation. Feedback loops may be used to inform the controller that the action has been
performed, so that the program can move to the next step. Precision of such control system is
less. It is generally used in pneumatically driven robots.
b. Playback with Point-to-Point (closed): Control Playback control uses a controller with
memory to record motion sequences in a work cycle, as well as associated locations and other
parameters, and then plays back the work cycle during program execution. Point-to-point
control means individual robot positions are recorded in the memory. These positions include
both mechanical stops for each joint, and the set of values that represent locations in the
range of each joint. Feedback control is used to confirm that the individual joints achieve the
specified locations in the program.
 c. Playback with Continuous Path Control (closed): Continuous path control refers to a
control system capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes. The
following advantages are noted with this type of playback control: greater storage capacity—
the number of locations that can be stored is greater than in point-to-point; and interpolation
calculations may be used, especially linear and circular interpolations.
d. Intelligent Control (closed): An intelligent robot exhibits behavior that makes it seems to
be intelligent. For example, it may have capacity to interact with its ambient surroundings;
decision-making capability; ability to communicate with humans; ability to carry out
computational analysis during the work cycle; and responsiveness to advanced sensor inputs.
They may also possess the playback facilities. However, it requires a high level of computer
control, an advanced programming language for decision-making logic and other
‗intelligence' into the memory