1 Computer Networks

In this Chapter
» Introduction to Computer
Networks

10.1 IntroductIon to computer networks

» Types of Networks We are living in a connected world. Information
» Network Devices is being produced, exchanged, and traced across
the globe in real time. It's possible as almost
» Identifying Nodes everyone and everything in the digital world is
in a Networked interconnected through one way or the other.
Communication

Internet of Things

Figure 10.1: Interconnection forming a social network

 Activity 10.1 A group of two or more similar things or people
Identify some other interconnected with each other is called network (Figure
networks in the 10.1). Some of the examples of network in our everyday
real world. life includes:

• Mobile network

• Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks

among two or more computers or computing devices.

Such interconnection allows computers to share data
and resources among each other. A basic network may
connect a few computers placed in a room.

depending on the number of computers it connects.

A computer network can include different types of

cellular phones.

Networking
Device

Figure 10.2: A computer network

Apart from computers, networks include networking
devices like switch, router, modem, etc. Networking
devices are used to connect multiple computers in
different settings. For communication, data in a network
is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These

network can be connected either through wired media

like cables or wireless media like air.

part of a network and that can receive, create, store

or send data to different network routes is called a
node. In the context of data communication, a node
can be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch,

or a server.

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 Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network Activity 10.2
allows us to exchange information simultaneously with Create a hotspot using
many parties through email, websites, audio/video a smartphone and
calls, etc. Network allows sharing of resources. For connect other
example, a printer can be made available to multiple
computers through a network; a networked storage
can be accessed by multiple computers. People often
connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming a
small personal network.

10.2 evolutIon of networkIng

In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the
academic and research institutions located at different

communicated between the University of California, Los

Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Slowly but gradually, more and more organisations
joined the ARPANET, and many independent smaller
networks were formed. Few of the milestones in the

is depicted in the timeline shown in Figure 10.3.

The idea of Advanced First version of Wi-fi
Research Project Agency TCP/IP introduced as (802.11) standard was
standard protocol on
conceptualized National Science
Roy Tomlinson develops Foundation brings
network messaging or
people with its NSFNET
comes to mean "at" program
1961 1997
1982
1971 1986

1969 1983
1990
Domain Name System
ARPANET became 1974
introduced
functional by

SRI
The Berners-Lee at
The term Internet was
CERN developed HTML
coined,

First commercial use of birth to World Wide Web

ARPANET, was started (www)

Figure 10.3: Timeline showing evolution of networking

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 notes 10.3 types of networks
There are various types of computer networks ranging
from network of handheld devices (like mobile phones
or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within
a single room to the millions of computers spread across
the globe. Some are connected wireless while others are
connected through wires.

transfer rate, computer networks are broadly categorised

as:

• LAN (Local Area Network)

• WAN (Wide Area Network)

10.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart

phones, printers etc., as shown in Figure 10.4. All these
devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
A personal area network may be wired or wireless.
For example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop
through USB forms a wired PAN while two smartphones
communicating with each other through Bluetooth
technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.

Figure 10.4: A Personal Area Network

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10.3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)
Explore and find out
tablet, mouse, printer, etc., placed at a limited distance. the minimum internet
The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from speed required to

buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school,

college, or university campus. The connectivity is done

A Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: A Local Area Network

LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic

users in the network can access other computers or
shared resources. Users can print documents using
a connected printer, upload/download documents
and software to and from the local server. Such LANs
provide the short range communication with the high
speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can
be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite

to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps

stands for Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules
that decides how computers and other devices connect
with each other through cables in a local area network

10.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of

a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps,

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 but it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV
network or cable based broadband internet services are
examples of MAN. This kind of network can be extended
up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected
together to form MAN, as shown in Figure 10.6.

LAN 1

Networking LAN 3
Device

LAN 2

Figure 10.6: A Metropolitan Area Network

10.3.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

LANs and MANs, which are spread across different

It is possible to access
your bank account
geographical locations of a country or in different
countries or continents. A WAN could be formed
world. Whether the by connecting a LAN to other LANs (Figure 10.7) via
bank’s network is a wired/wireless media. Large business, educational
LAN, MAN, WAN or
and government organisations connect their different
any other type?
branches in different locations across the world through
WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects
billions of computers, smartphones and millions of
LANs from different continents.

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 Network User Network User
Network User Network User

Network Switch Network Switch

Network User Network User

Internet

Network User Network User Network User Network User

LAN 1 - Delhi L AN 1 - Shimla

Figure 10.7: A Wide Area Network

10.4 network devIces

To communicate data through different transmission
media and to configure networks with different
functionality, we require different devices like Modem,
Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let us
explore them in detail.
10.4.1 Modem

a device used for conversion between analog signals and

digital bits. We know computers store and process data
in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data from
a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet,
digital data are converted to an analog signal and the
medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries
the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected
to both the source and destination nodes. The modem
at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts

receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts

the analog signals into digital data for the destination
node to understand. Figure 10.8 shows connectivity

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 Analog Signal
Modulation Demodulation
Digital Signal Digital Signal
Demodulation Modulation

Telephone Line
Modem Modem

Figure 10.8: Use of modem

10.4.2 Ethernet Card

(NIC card in short) is a network adapter used to set

up a wired network.
It acts as an interface

the network. It is a circuit

board mounted on the
motherboard of a computer

10.9. The Ethernet cable

connects the computer to
the network through NIC.
Ethernet cards can support
data transfer between 10
Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). Each NIC has a
MAC address, which helps
in uniquely identifying the
computer on the network.
Figure 10.9: A Network Interface Card

10.4.3 RJ45

eight-pin connector (Figure 10.10)

that is used exclusively with
Ethernet cables for networking.
It is a standard networking
interface that can be seen at
the end of all network cables.
Basically, it is a small plastic plug

Ethernet cards present in various

Figure 10.10: RJ 45
computing devices.

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10.4.4 Repeater

These signals can travel a specified distance (usually

about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this
limit and become weak. In such conditions, original An Internet service
signals need to be regenerated. provider (ISP) is any

provides services
on the cables to which it is connected. The weakened
for accessing the
signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put
back on the cable by a repeater.
10.4.5 Hub

to connect different devices through wires. Data arriving

on any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The
limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come
at the same time, they will collide.

Activity 10.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Find and list a
few ISPs in your
region.

Figure 10.11: A network hub with 8 ports

10.4.5 Switch

plays a central role in a Local Area Network (LAN). Like

a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple
computers or communicating devices. When data
arrives, the switch extracts the

packet and looks it up in a table to

see where to send the packet. Thus,
it sends signals to only selected
devices instead of sending to all.

the same time. A switch does not

forward the signals which are noisy
or corrupted. It drops such signals
and asks the sender to resend it. Figure 10.12: Cables connected to a network switch

Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices

to connect multiple devices thus creating LANs or to

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 notes 10.4.6 Router

receive the data, analyse it and transmit it to other

networks. A router connects a local area network to the
internet. Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has
advanced capabilities as it can analyse the data being
carried over a network, decide/alter how it is packaged,
and send it to another network of a different type. For
example, data has been divided into packets of a certain
size. Suppose these packets are to be carried over a
different type of network which cannot handle bigger
packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged
as smaller packets and then sent over the network by
a router.

Figure 10.13: A router

A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router
can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and other
devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports
to provide wired Internet access. These days, home Wi-Fi
routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/
switch. These routers connect to incoming broadband
lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and convert
them to digital data for computing devices to process.
10.4.7 Gateway

that acts as a “gate” between an organisation's network

and the outside world of the Internet (Figure 10.14).
Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network,
as all data coming in or going out of a network must

paths. Besides routing data packets, gateways also

maintain information about the host network's internal
connection paths and the identified paths of other

communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will

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pass the data packet to the gateway, which then routes
it to the destination using the best possible route.

10.0.0.0/8 Server GATEWAY Server 20.0.0.0/8

IP ADDRESS IP ADDRESS

PC 4 PC 5 PC 4 PC 5

PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 1 PC 2 PC 3

Figure 10.14: A network gateway

For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the

gateway is usually the Internet Service Provider that
provides access to the entire Internet. Generally, a

in computer networks. But a gateway can be

implemented completely in software, hardware, or
a combination of both. Because a network gateway

usually integrated with it.

10.5 networkIng topologIes

We have already discussed that a number of computing
devices are connected together to form a Local Area
Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of
LANs forms the Internet. The arrangement of computers
and other peripherals in a network is called its topology.
Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star
and Tree.

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 10.5.1 Mesh Topology

device is connected with every other device in the

network as shown in Figure 10.15. Such a network can

can transmit data simultaneously. Also, such networks

are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets
down, it does not cause any break in the transmission
of data between other nodes. This topology is also
more secure as compared to other topologies because
each cable between two nodes carries different data.
However, wiring is complex and cabling cost is high in
creating such networks and there are many redundant
or unutilised connections.

Figure 10.15: A mesh topology

To build a fully-
connected mesh
10.5.2 Ring Topology

it requires n(n-1)/2 to two other devices, one each on either side, as shown
wires. in Figure 10.16. The nodes connected with each
other thus forms a ring. The link in a ring topology is
unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one
direction only (clockwise or counterclockwise).

Figure 10.16: A ring topology

10.5.3 Bus Topology

device connects to a transmission medium, known as

bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus

both directions. That means, data can be received by

any of the nodes connected to the bus.

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 Bus

Figure 10.17: A bus topology

In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is
shared among the nodes, which makes it cheaper and
easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are
considered to be less secure and less reliable.
10.5.4 Star Topology
How will a Bus and
device is connected to a central node, which is a Ring topology behave
networking device like a hub or a switch, as shown in in case a Node is
Figure 10.18. down?

and fast as each device is directly connected with the

central device. Although disturbance in one device will
not affect the rest of the network, any failure in a central
networking device may lead to the failure of complete
network.

Figure 10.18: A star topology

The central node can be either a broadcasting device

means data will be transmitted to all the nodes in the
network, or a unicast device means the node can identify
the destination and forward data to that node only.
10.5.5 Tree or Hybrid Topology

branches and each branch can have one or more basic

topologies like star, ring and bus. Such topologies are
usually realised in WANs where multiple LANs are
connected. Those LANs may be in the form of a ring,

connecting 4-star topologies in a bus.

first reaches the centralised device and from there the

data passes through every branch where each branch

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 Figure 10.19: A hybrid topology

10.6 IdentIfyIng nodes In a networked

Each node in a network should be uniquely identified

so that a network device can identify the sender and

Let us explore further and know how each node is

distinguished in a network.
10.6.1 MAC Address

also known as the physical or hardware address, is a

unique value associated with a network adapter called
a NIC. The MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time
of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent address
and cannot be changed under any circumstances. The
machine on which the NIC is attached, can be physically

Each MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers

(48 bits in length), of which the first six digits (24 bits)
contain the manufacturer’s ID called Organisational

represents the serial number assigned to the card by

the manufacturer. A sample MAC address looks like:

Activity 10.4
Explore how can you
find the MAC
10.6.2 IP Address
address of your
computer
is also a unique address that can be used to uniquely
identify each node in a network. The IP addresses

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are assigned to each node in a network that uses the
Internet Protocol for communication. Thus, if we know Do mobile phones
a computer’s IP address, we can communicate with have a MAC address?
that computer from anywhere in the world. However, Is it different from
unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node
mobile phones?
is removed from one network and connected to another
network.

is a 32 bit numeric address, written as four numbers

separated by periods, where each number is the decimal
(base-10) representation for an 8-bit binary (base-2)
number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. A
sample IPV4 address looks like:

192:168:0:178
With more and more devices getting connected to
the Internet, it was realised that the 32-bit IP address

unique addresses. Thus, a 128 bits IP address, called IP

version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address
is represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16)
numbers separated by colons. A sample IPV6 address
looks like:
2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652

10.7 Internet, web and the Internet of thIngs

The Internet is the global network of computing devices
including desktop, laptop, servers, tablets, mobile
phones, other handheld devices, printers, scanners,
routers, switches, gateways, etc. Moreover, smart
electronic appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light,
etc. can also communicate through a network. The list
of such smart devices is always increasing e.g., drones,
vehicles, door lock, security camera. We have already
studied IoT and WoT in class 11.

to visualise or describe each and every aspect of the

architecture of the Internet. Computers are either
connected to a modem through a cable or wirelessly (Wi-
Fi). That modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to
a local Internet Service Provider (ISP) who then connects
to a national network. Many such ISPs connect together
forming a regional network and regional networks
connect together forming a national network, and such

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 The Internet today is a widespread network, and its
influence is no longer limited to the technical fields of

in the society as is evident from the increasing use of

online tools for education, creativity, entertainment,
You are encouraged socialisation, and e-commerce.
to take up any area
of concern where 10.7.1 The World Wide Web (WWW)
you think IoT can be
ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
and discuss it with
your peers. An of interlinked web pages and web resources. The
example for the same resources on the web can be shared or accessed
can be preventing through the Internet.
road accidents.
computers, one had to login individually to each
computer through the Internet. Besides, files in

formats, and it was difficult to understand each other’s

files and documents. Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British
computer scientist invented the revolutionary World

technologies that lead to creation of web:

HTML – HyperText Markup Language. It is a language
which is used to design standardised Web Pages so
that the Web contents can be read and understood
from any computer. Basic structure of every webpage
is designed using HTML.

address or path for each resource located on the

web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator
(URL). Every page on the web has a unique URL.
Examples are: https://www.mhrd.gov.in,http://
www.ncert.nic.in,http://www.airindia.in, etc. URL
is sometimes also called web address. However,
a URL is not only the domain name. It contains

as depicted below:
Domain Name

http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.htm
URL

• HTTP – The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set of

rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages

version is HTTPS.

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 Many people confuse the web with the Internet.
notes
The Internet as we know is the huge global network
of interconnected computers, which may or may not

web on the other hand is the interlinking of collection

of Webpages on these computers which are accessible
over the Internet. WWW today gives users access to a
vast collection of information created and shared by
people across the world. It is today the most popular
information retrieval system

10.8 domaIn name system

The Internet is a vast ocean where information is
available in the form of millions of websites. Each website
is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet,
which means each server has an IP address. Every
device connected to the Internet has an IP address. To
access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our

addresses of different websites as they are in terms of

numbers or strings.

therefore, each computer server hosting a website or

web resource is given a name against its IP address.
These names are called the Domain names or hostnames
corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each
server. For easy understanding, it can be considered
as the phonebook where instead of remembering each
person’s phone number, we assign names to their
numbers. For example, IP addresses and domain names
of some websites are as follows:

mapped IP addresses
Domain Name IP Address
ncert.nic.in 164.100.60.233
cbse.nic.in 164.100.107.32
mhrd.gov.in 164.100.163.45

wikipedia.org 198.35.26.96

10.8.1 DNS Server

domain name to each IP. But, to access a web resource,

a browser needs to find out the IP address corresponding

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 name of each web server to its corresponding IP address
is called domain name resolution. It is done through
a server called DNS server. Thus, when we enter a
URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches
a computer server called DNS server to obtain the IP
address corresponding to that domain name. After
getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol retrieves the
information and loads it in our browser.

HTTP requests a DNS server for corresponding IP addss,

and the server sends back an IP address.
DNS root servers
User
are named using

M for the first

13 letters of the
alphabet. Ten of 164.100.60.233
HTTP in DNS
in the US, one in Browser www.ncert.nic.in Server
London, one in
Stockholm, and
one in Japan.
The organisation Figure 10.20: Request of IP address corresponding to domain name
Numbers Authority A DNS server maintains a database of domain names
(IANA) keeps this
and their corresponding IP addresses. To understand
list of DNS root
servers. how the domain name resolution works, we have to
understand how and where the DNS servers are kept.
The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order. At
the top level, there are 13 servers called root servers.
Then below the root servers there are other DNS servers
at different levels. A DNS server may contain the IP
address corresponding to a domain or it will contain
the IP address of other DNS servers, where this domain
entry can be searched.

summary
• A computer network is an interconnection among
two or more computers or computing devices.

data and resources among each other.

computers in different settings.

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• In a communication network, each device that is notes
a part of a network and that can receive, create,
store or send data to different network routes is
called a node.

transfer rate, computer networks are broadly

categorised into LAN (Local Area Network), MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area
Network).

placed at a limited distance ranging from a single

room, a floor, an office or a campus having one or

• Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how

computers and other devices connect with each
other through cables in a LAN.

form of LAN which covers a larger geographical

area like a city or a town.

internet services are examples of MAN.

and other LANs and MANs, which are spread

across different geographical locations of a
country or in different countries or continents.

billions of computers, smartphones and millions

of LANs from different continents.

is a device used for conversion between electric

signals and digital bits.

Card (NIC card in short) is a network adaptor

used to set up a wired network.

uniquely identifying the computer on the network.

• A repeater is an analog device that regenerate the

• A switch is a networking device used to connect

multiple computers or communicating devices.

data, analyse it and transmit it to other networks.

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 notes • Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a
network, as all data coming in or going out of a

order to use routing paths.

peripherals in a network is called its topology.

Star and Tree.

connected with every other device in the network.

• In ring topology, each node is connected to two

• In bus topology, a single backbone wire called

bus is shared among the nodes, which makes it
cheaper and easy to maintain.

connected to a central networking device like a

hub or a switch.

branches and each branch can have one or more

basic topologies like star, ring and bus.

hardware address, is a unique permanent value

associated with a network adapter called a NIC.
It is used to physically identify a machine on the
network.

address, is a unique address that can be used to

uniquely identify each node in a network.

node is removed from one network and connected

to another network.

devices.

ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions

of interlinked web pages and web resources.

scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide

Web in 1990.

language which is used to design standardised

Web Pages so that the Web contents can be read

200
 and understood from any computer. notes

Resource Locator) is a unique address or path for

each resource located on the web.

rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages

across the web. The more secure and advanced
version is HTTPS.

resource is given a name against its IP address.

These names are called the Domain names or
hostnames.

to its corresponding IP address is called domain

name resolution. It is done through a server called
DNS server.

exercIse
1. Expand the following:
a) ARPANET

c) ISP
d) URI
2. What do you understand by the term network?
3. Mention any two main advantages of using a network of
computing devices.
4. Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
5. Write down the names of few commonly used networking
devices.
6. Two universities in different States want to transfer

this?
7. Define the term topology. What are the popular network
topologies?
8. How is tree topology different from bus topology?
9. Identify the type of topology from the following:

b) Each node is connected with central switching

through independent cables.

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 notes 10. What do you mean by a modem? Why is it used?
11. Explain the following devices:
a) Switch

c) Router
d) Gateway
e) NIC
12. Draw a network layout of star topology and bus
topology connecting five computers.
13. What is the significance of MAC address?
14. How is IP address different from MAC address?

15. What is DNS? What is a DNS server?

16. Sahil, a class X student, has just started understanding
the basics of Internet and web technologies. He is a bit
confused in between the terms “World Wide Web” and
“Internet”. Help him in understanding both the terms
with the help of suitable examples of each.

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