PHYSICS NOTES

Movement and Position

Relationship between Average Speed, Distance
Moved, and Time Taken
The relationship between average speed, distance moved, and time
taken can be expressed by the formula:

Speed =
Distance
Time

This formula shows that the average speed of an object is calculated by

dividing the total distance it travels by the total time it takes.

Example:

If a car travels 150 kilometres in 3 hours, we can calculate its average

speed as:

Speed = 10,800 seconds = 13.8 ≈ 14 m/s

150,000 meters

(Thus, the car’s average speed is 14 meter per second)

Relationship between Acceleration, Change in

Velocity and Time Taken
The relationship between acceleration, change in velocity, and time
taken is given by the equation:

Acceleration =
Change∈velocity
Time Taken

Where:

 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity,

the initial velocity (Δv=vf − vi )

 Change in velocity is the difference between the final velocity and

Example:

If a car increases its velocity from 20 m/s to 50 m/s over a time of 5

seconds, the acceleration is:

Acceleration = = 6 m/s2
50 m/s−20 m/s
5 seconds

(The car accelerates at 6 m/s2)

Relationship between Final Speed, Initial Speed,
Acceleration, and Distance Moved
The relationship between final speed, initial speed, acceleration, and
distance moved is described by the equation:

(vf)2 = (vi)2 + 2ad

Where:

 vf = Final speed
 vi= Initial speed
 a = Acceleration
 d = Distance moved
Example:

If a car starts at an initial speed of 10 m/s and accelerates at 2 m/s² over

50 meters, the final speed is calculated as:

(vf)2 = (10 m/s)2 + 2 × 2 m/s2 × 50 m

vf =√ ( 10 m/s )2+2 × 2m/ s2 ×50 m
vf = 17.32 m/s
(Thus, the car’s final speed is approximately 17 m/s)

[Graphs regarding Movement and Position is provided in the book, Page –

6, 11, 13 and 14]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 14 to 16]

 Forces and Shape
Effects of Forces Between Bodies: Changes in
Speed, Shape, and Direction
Forces can cause various effects on objects, including:

 Changes in Speed: A force can speed up or slow down an object.

For example, applying a force to a car causes it to accelerate, while
friction can slow it down.

 Changes in Shape: Some forces can deform objects, changing

their shape. For example, squeezing a rubber ball alters its shape
temporarily.

 Changes in Direction: A force can cause an object to change its

direction. For instance, a force exerted on a moving car can cause it
to turn.

Examples:

 When you kick a stationary ball, you apply a force that causes it to
move (change in speed).

 Stretching a rubber band changes its shape, and once released, it

returns to its original shape (elastic behaviour).

Identifying Different Types of Force

Forces can be classified into different types based on their nature:

 Gravitational Force: The force of attraction between two masses.

It causes objects to fall toward the Earth. Example: A dropped apple
falls due to gravity.

 Electrostatic Force: The force between two charged objects.

Opposite charges attract, and like charges repel. Example: Rubbing
a balloon on your hair and watching it stick to a wall.

 Frictional Force: The force that opposes motion between two

surfaces in contact. Example: Friction between tires and the road
slows down a car.

 Tension Force: The force in a string, rope, or cable when it is pulled

tight by forces acting from opposite ends. Example: A tug of war
rope under tension.
Vector Quantities vs Scalar Quantities
 Vector Quantities: Have both magnitude and direction.
Examples include force, velocity, acceleration, and displacement.

 Scalar Quantities: Have only magnitude without direction.

Examples include mass, temperature, speed, and distance.

Force as a Vector Quantity

Force is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and
direction. When forces are applied to an object, they can push or pull in
different directions, and their overall effect (resultant force) depends on
both the size and the direction of the individual forces.

Example:

 A force of 10 N applied to the right and a force of 5 N applied to the

left will result in a net force of 5 N to the right.

Calculating Resultant Force of Forces Acting

Along a Line
When multiple forces act along the same line, the resultant force is the
sum of the forces, taking direction into account. If forces act in opposite
directions, subtract the smaller force from the larger force.

Example 1 (Same Direction):

Two people push a box to the right with forces of 5 N and 7 N. The
resultant force is:

Resultant force = 5N + 7N = 12N (to the right)

Example 2 (Opposite Directions):

One person pushes a box to the right with a force of 10 N, and other
pushes it to the left with a force of 4 N. The resultant force is:

Resultant force = 10N – 4N = 6N (to the right)

Friction as a Force That Opposes Motion

Friction is a resistive force that occurs when two surfaces move or try to
move across each other. It always acts in the opposite direction to the
motion, making it harder for objects to move.

Example:

When you try to push a heavy box across the floor, friction between the
box and the floor resists the motion, requiring you to apply more force.
Investigation: How Extension Varies with Applied
Force for Helical Springs, Metal Wires, and
Rubber Bands
The extension of an object, such as a spring, depends on the force applied
to it. This can be explored by conducting an experiment:

applied force, following Hooke's Law: F = k × e, where F is the

 Helical Springs: For a spring, the extension is proportional to the

force, k is the spring constant, and e is the extension.

 Metal Wires: Metal wires also extend proportionally with applied

force, up to their elastic limit, beyond which they deform
permanently.
 Rubber Bands: Unlike springs and wires, rubber bands do not
follow Hooke’s Law exactly. Their extension varies non-linearly with
applied force.

Example:

In an experiment with a spring, if a 2 N force causes an extension of 4 cm,

then a 4 N force would cause an extension of 8 cm, if Hooke’s Law is
followed.

Elastic Behaviour
Elastic behaviour refers to the ability of a material to return to its
original shape after the forces causing deformation are removed.
Materials that exhibit this behaviour include rubber bands, springs, and
some metals.

Example:

When you stretch a spring and release it, it returns to its original length if
you haven’t exceeded its elastic limit.

[Elastic Limit potential in graph is provided in the book, Page – 24]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 34]

 Forces and Movement
Relationship Between Unbalanced Force, Mass,
and Acceleration
The relationship between unbalanced force, mass, and acceleration is
defined by Newton's Second Law of Motion. It states that the
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the unbalanced force
acting upon it and inversely proportional to its mass. The formula is:

F = ma
Where:

 F is the unbalanced force (in newtons, N),

 m is the mass of the object (in kilograms, kg),
 a is the acceleration (in meters per second squared, m/s²).
Example:

If a car of mass 1000 kg experiences an unbalanced force of 3000 N, the

acceleration is:

a = 1000 Kg = 3 m/s2
3000 N

Relationship Between Weight, Mass, and

Gravitational Field Strength
The weight of an object is the force due to gravity acting on its mass. It is

(on Earth, the gravitational field strength is approximately 9.81 N/kg.

related to the mass and the gravitational field strength of the planet

The relationship is given by:

W = mg
Where:

W is the weight (in newtons, N),

 g is the gravitational field strength (in newtons per kilogram, N/kg).


Example:

If an object has a mass of 50 kg, its weight on Earth is:

W = 50kg × 9.8N/kg = 490N

Stopping Distance of a Vehicle
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the total distance it takes to stop
after the driver perceives the need to brake. It is made up of two
components:

Stopping Distance = Thinking Distance + Braking Distance

 Thinking Distance: The distance the vehicle travels during the
driver’s reaction time (the time it takes for the driver to respond).

 Braking Distance: The distance the vehicle travels after the brakes
are applied until it comes to a stop.

Example:

If a car travels 15 meters during the thinking distance and 25 meters

during the braking distance, the total stopping distance is:

Stopping Distance = 15m + 25m = 40m

Factors Affecting Vehicle Stopping Distance

Several factors influence the stopping distance of a vehicle, including:

 Speed: Higher speeds increase both thinking and braking distances.

 Brakes Discs: Defect discs increase the braking distance.

 Brake Pads: Worn out pads increase the braking distance.

 Tires: Worn tires reduce grip, increasing braking distance.

 Mass: Heavier vehicles require more time and distance to stop.

 Road Conditions: Wet, icy, or uneven roads increase braking

distance.

 Reaction Time: Longer reaction time (due to fatigue, distractions,

or intoxication) increases thinking distance.

Forces Acting on Falling Objects and Terminal

Velocity
When an object falls, two main forces act on it:

 Gravity: A downward force that causes the object to accelerate.

 Air Resistance: An upward force that opposes the motion of the

object.

As an object accelerates, air resistance increases. Eventually, air

resistance becomes equal to the force of gravity, and the object stops
accelerating. At this point, the object falls at a constant speed known as
terminal velocity.

Explanation of Terminal Velocity:

1. Initially, gravity causes the object to accelerate downwards.

2. As the object speeds up, air resistance increases.

3. Eventually, air resistance equals the gravitational force, and the

forces are balanced.

4. The object continues to fall at a constant speed, which is its terminal

velocity.

Example:

A skydiver experiences acceleration at first, but as air resistance

increases, their velocity becomes constant. Once the forces of gravity and
air resistance balance, the skydiver reaches terminal velocity, falling at a
constant speed until the parachute is deployed.

Explanation of Terminal Velocity in a liquid:

Terminal velocity in a liquid refers to the constant speed that a

particle (such as a sphere or droplet) reaches when falling through a liquid
medium (like water or oil). At this speed, the forces acting on the particle
become balanced, and it stops accelerating.

When an object falls through a liquid, it initially accelerates due to the

force of gravity. However, as the object moves faster, it experiences an
upward force of drag (or resistance) from the liquid and a buoyant
force. At terminal velocity, the net force acting on the object becomes
zero because the gravitational force pulling the object downwards is
balanced by the drag force and the buoyant force pushing upwards.

As the object accelerates in the liquid:

 The drag force increases with velocity.

 The buoyant force remains constant.

 Eventually, the drag and buoyant forces together balance the

gravitational force, causing the object to stop accelerating and
move at constant velocity—this is the terminal velocity.
Factors Affecting Terminal Velocity:

1. Size of the Object: Larger objects have a larger gravitational force

and thus tend to have a higher terminal velocity.

2. Density Difference: The greater the difference between the

object’s density and the liquid’s density, the higher the terminal
velocity.

3. Viscosity of the Liquid: More viscous liquids (like oil) exert greater
drag, reducing terminal velocity compared to less viscous liquids
(like water).

[Explanation of graphs are provided in the book, Page – 30 to 33 and 36]

[Apparently CAIE (4th Edition) has no graphs regarding F=ma and braking]
 Momentum
Relationship Between Momentum, Mass, and
Velocity
The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity.
Momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
direction. The formula for momentum is:

p = mv
Where:

p is the momentum (in kilogram meters per second, kg m/s)

v is the velocity (in meters per second, m/s).
Example:

A car with a mass of 1000 kg is moving at a velocity of 20 m/s. Its

momentum is:

p = 1000kg × 20m/s = 20,000 kg m/s

Conservation of Momentum
The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a closed
system, the total momentum before a collision or interaction is equal to
the total momentum after the collision, provided no external forces act on
the system.

Total momentum before = Total momentum after

Example:

Two ice skaters push off each other. Skater A has a mass of 50 kg and
moves at 2 m/s. Skater B has a mass of 75 kg and moves in the opposite
direction. Assuming the system is closed:

50 kg × 2 m/s + 75kg × vB = 0
100 kg m/s + 75 kg × vB = 0

vB = = −1.33 m/s
−100 kg m/s
75 kg
Relationship Between Force, Change in
Momentum, and Time Taken
The force acting on an object is related to the change in momentum
and the time over which this change occurs. This is expressed by the
formula:

F = ∆t
∆p

Where:

 Δp is the change in momentum (in kilogram meters per second, kg

m/s)

 Δt is the time over which the change occurs (in seconds, s).
Example:

If a 10 kg object moving at 5 m/s comes to a stop in 2 seconds, the force

required to stop the object is:

∆p = 10kg × (0 – 5 m/s) = −50 kg m/s

F = 2 seconds = −25N
−50 kg m/s

Newton's First Three Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia): An object at rest will stay at rest,
and an object in motion will stay in motion at a constant velocity, unless
acted upon by an external force.

Example:

A book resting on a table will stay there unless someone pushes it.
Similarly, a moving car will continue moving unless friction or brakes act
on it.

Newton's Second Law (Law of Force and Acceleration): The

acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on
it and inversely proportional to its mass.

Example:

If you apply a greater force to a shopping cart, it accelerates faster. The

heavier the cart (greater mass), the harder it is to accelerate.

Newton's Third Law (Action and Reaction): For every action, there is
an equal and opposite reaction.
 Car Safety: Momentum and
Forces in Action
Car safety systems are designed to protect passengers during a collision.
These systems reduce injuries by controlling how quickly momentum
changes and distributing forces over a longer period. These are the
functions of a few:

Seat Belts
Seat belts are one of the most important safety features in any vehicle.
Their function is to keep the passengers securely fastened in their seats
during a collision, preventing them from being thrown forward.

How They Work: Seat belts spread the force of impact across the
stronger parts of the body, such as the pelvis and chest, and increase the
time over which the passenger's momentum changes, thereby reducing
the force experienced by the body.

Air Bags
Airbags are designed to deploy rapidly in the event of a collision and
provide a cushion for the passengers. They work in tandem with seat belts
to reduce injuries.

How They Work: When a collision occurs, sensors detect rapid

deceleration and deploy the airbags. The airbags inflate quickly and
provide a soft surface that helps slow down the head and upper body,
reducing the force of impact.

Crumple Zone
Crumple zones are areas of a car, usually at the front and rear, designed
to deform in a collision. These zones absorb some of the energy of the
impact, reducing the force transmitted to the passenger cabin.

How They Work: In a collision, crumple zones collapse in a controlled

manner, absorbing kinetic energy and slowing down the car more
gradually. This reduces the acceleration of the car and the passengers,
resulting in lower forces experienced by the occupants.

Headrests
Headrests are designed to prevent whiplash injury by supporting the head
and neck during a rear-end collision.
How They Work: In the event of a sudden stop or impact, the headrest
limits the backward motion of the head, reducing the risk of neck injuries.

The Turning Effect of Forces

Relationship Between the Moment of a Force and
Its Perpendicular Distance from the Pivot
The moment (or turning effect) of a force is the product of the force
applied and the perpendicular distance from the pivot (or fulcrum) to
the line of action of the force. The formula for the moment is:

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance from Pivot

Where:

 Moment is measured in Newton-meters (N·m),

 Force is in Newtons (N),

 Perpendicular distance is in meters (m).

Example:

If a force of 10 N is applied at a perpendicular distance of 0.5 m from a

pivot, the moment is:

Moment = 10 N × 0.5 m = 5 Nm

The weight of a Body Acts Through Its Centre of

Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point where the entire weight of
the body can be considered to act. For regular, symmetric objects, the
centre of gravity is typically at the geometric centre. For irregular objects,
the centre of gravity may not coincide with any physical part of the object
but is still the point through which gravity acts.

 Effect of Weight on Stability: The position of the centre of gravity

affects the stability of an object. A lower centre of gravity generally
provides more stability, while a higher centre of gravity can make
the object more prone to tipping.

Example:

In a balanced seesaw, the weight of each child acts through their centre of
gravity, and the position of their centre of gravity relative to the pivot
affects the turning effect or moment.
 [It is strongly suggested to read the book for better understanding as
diagrams are provided]

Principle of Moments for Parallel Forces in One

Plane
The principle of moments states that for an object in equilibrium, the
sum of the clockwise moments of any point must be equal to the sum
of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

∑ Clockwise Moments = ∑ Anticlockwise Moments

This principle can be used to analyse forces acting on a beam or a lever
system, ensuring that if moments balance, the system remains in
equilibrium.

Example:

Consider a beam balanced at a pivot. A 5 N force is applied 2 m to the left

of the pivot, and another force is applied 3 m to the right of the pivot. To
balance the beam:

5N × 2m = F × 3m

F= 3 m = 3.33 ≈ 3N
10 Nm

Upward Forces on a Light Beam Supported at Its

Ends
When a light beam is supported at its ends (like a bridge), and a heavy
object is placed on it, the upward forces at the supports vary depending
on the position of the object.

 If the object is placed in the centre, the upward forces at each

support are equal because the weight is distributed evenly.

 If the object is closer to one support, that support will bear a larger
upward force, while the other support will bear a smaller upward
force.

Example:

object is placed 2 meters from the left support, the upward forces F1 and
Consider a beam that is 6 meters long, supported at both ends. If a 200 N

F2 at the left and right supports, respectively, can be found using the
principle of moments.

Taking moments about the left support:

 F2 × 6m = 200N × 2m
F2 = 66.67 ≈ 66N

the force at the left support F1 is:

Now, since the total upward force must equal the total downward force,

F1 = 200N – 66N = 134N

Mains Electricity
Protection in Domestic Appliances: Insulation,
Double Insulation, Earthing, Fuses, and Circuit
Breakers
Insulation and double insulation, earthing, fuses, and circuit
breakers are key safety features in domestic appliances. They are
designed to prevent electrical accidents, protect devices, and ensure user
safety.

 Insulation: Wires are covered with an insulating material (usually

plastic) to prevent contact with live wires and reduce the risk of
electric shocks.

 Double Insulation: Some appliances have extra insulation (two

layers of insulating material) so that even if one layer fails, the user
is still protected from live parts. These appliances don't require
earthing.

 Earthing: The earth wire provides a low-resistance path to the

ground. If the metal case of an appliance becomes live, the current
flows through the earth wire instead of through the user, preventing
electric shocks. Earthing works with fuses and circuit breakers.

 Fuses: A fuse contains a thin wire that melts if the current exceeds
a certain level, breaking the circuit and protecting the appliance
from overheating or damage.

 Circuit Breakers: These automatically switch off the circuit if too

much current flows. Unlike fuses, which must be replaced after they
blow, circuit breakers can be reset and reused.

Example:

In a kettle, the live and neutral wires are insulated, and the metal casing is
connected to the earth wire. If the live wire touches the casing, the
current flows through the earth wire and causes the fuse to blow,
disconnecting the device from the mains supply.

Current in a Resistor and the Electrical Transfer

of Energy
When an electric current flows through a resistor, energy is transferred
as the moving electrons collide with the atoms of the resistor. These
collisions cause the atoms to vibrate more, increasing the temperature of
the resistor.

This heating effect can be used in various domestic contexts, such as:

 Electric Heaters: Resistive wires (such as in a toaster) heat up

when current passes through, converting electrical energy into heat.

Relationship Between Power, Current, and

Voltage
The power of an electrical device is related to the current flowing through
it and the voltage across it by the formula:

P = IV
Where:

 P is the power (in watts, W),

 I is the current (in amperes, A),
 V is the voltage (in volts, V).
Example:

A lightbulb operates at 230 V and has a power rating of 60 W. The current

drawn by the bulb can be calculated as:

I = 230V = 0.26 Amps

60 W

Fuse Selection:

To select the correct fuse, you choose one that is slightly higher than the
operating current of the appliance. In this case, a 3 A fuse would be
appropriate because it can handle up to 3 A without blowing.

Alternating Current (AC) vs. Direct Current (DC)

 Alternating Current (AC): In mains electricity, the current
continuously changes direction. AC is used in homes because it is
 more efficient for transmitting power over long distances. The UK
mains supply is 230 V AC at a frequency of 50 Hz, meaning the
current changes direction 50 times per second.

 Direct Current (DC): In a battery or cell, the current flows in one

direction only. This is why devices powered by batteries use DC, and
appliances connected to the mains use AC.

Key Difference:

 AC: Current reverses direction periodically.

 DC: Current flows in only one direction.

[Image of current suppliant is provided in the book, Page – 65]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 192]

Relationship Between Energy Transferred,

Current, Voltage, and Time
The energy transferred by an electrical appliance depends on the current,
voltage, and the time it operates for. The formula is:

E = IVt
Where:

 E is the energy transferred (in joules, J),

 t is the time (in seconds, s).
Example:

A kettle operates at 230 V with a current of 10 A for 5 minutes. The energy

transferred is:

E = 10A × 230V × 300 seconds = 690,000 Joules

Heating Effect of Current

When current flows through a conductor, it encounters resistance, and the
energy is dissipated as heat. The heating effect of current is used in
devices like:

 Electric Heaters: Where resistive elements heat up when a current

flows through them.

 Toasters and Kettles: Where resistive wires or elements transfer

electrical energy to thermal energy for cooking or heating.
The greater the current or resistance, the more heat is produced. This
relationship can be described by the formula for power in resistive
heating:

P = I2 × R
Where:

 R is the resistance (in ohms, Ω).

Example:

In an electric heater with a resistance of 10 Ω, and a current of 5 A flowing

through it:

P = 52 A × 10Ω = 250 Watts

Current and Voltage in Circuits

Series vs. Parallel Circuits for Different
Applications
 Series Circuits: In a series circuit, all components are connected
end to end, so there is only one path for the current to take. If one
component breaks, the entire circuit is interrupted.

o Applications: Series circuits are not commonly used for

domestic lighting because if one lightbulb goes out, all the
lights in the circuit will go out. However, they are used in
devices like Christmas lights where all lights are intended to
be in sequence.

 Parallel Circuits: In a parallel circuit, each component is connected

in a separate branch, so the current can flow through multiple paths.
If one component breaks, the others will continue to work.

o Applications: Parallel circuits are preferred for domestic

lighting because if one light goes out, the others remain lit,
and each light operates independently of the others.

Electric Current in a Solid Metallic Conductor

In a solid metallic conductor (like a copper wire), electric current is the
flow of negatively charged electrons. These electrons move through
the conductor from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of a
power supply, creating an electric current.
Key Point:

In metals, the charge carriers are free electrons, and the flow of these
electrons constitutes the current. The direction of conventional current,
however, is considered to be from positive to negative, opposite to the
direction of electron flow.

Relationship Between Voltage, Current, and

Resistance (Ohm’s Law)
V = IR
Example:

If a current of 3 A flows through a resistor with a resistance of 5 Ω, the

voltage across the resistor is:

V = 3A × 5Ω = 15 Volts

Current as the Rate of Flow of Charge

Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge through a conductor. It
is the amount of charge passing through a point in a circuit per unit time.
The formula for current is:

Q = It
Where:

 Q is the charge (in coulombs, C),

Example:

If a current of 2 A flows for 5 seconds, the total charge that passes

through the circuit is:

Q = 2A × 5 = 10 Coulombs

Lamps and LEDs as Indicators of Current

Lamps and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are used to indicate the
presence of a current in a circuit. When current flows through a lamp, it
lights up. Similarly, when current flows through an LED, it emits light.

 Lamps: Glow when a current passes through them, converting

electrical energy into light energy.

 LEDs: Emit light only when current flows in the correct direction.
They are often used as indicators because they are energy-efficient
and long-lasting.
Voltage Across Two Components in Parallel
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch or component is the
same. Regardless of the current flowing through each branch, the voltage
across components connected in parallel is identical.

Key Point:

Each branch of a parallel circuit receives the full supply voltage, even if
the resistances in the branches differ.

Voltage as Energy Transferred Per Unit Charge

Voltage is the amount of energy transferred per unit charge. It tells us
how much energy is given to or taken from the charges as they move
through a component or circuit.

V= Q
E

Relationship Between Energy Transferred,

Charge, and Voltage
The amount of energy transferred by an electrical component is related
to the charge that passes through it and the voltage across it. The
formula is:

E = QV
Where:

 E is the energy transferred (in joules, J),

Example:

If 4 coulombs of charge pass through a component with a voltage of 12 V,

the energy transferred is:

E = 4C × 12V = 48 J

Volt as a Joule per Coulomb

The volt is defined as the amount of energy transferred per unit charge.
One volt is equivalent to one joule of energy transferred per one coulomb
of charge:

1 V = 1 J/C
This means that if 1 coulomb of charge passes through a component with
a potential difference of 1 volt, 1 joule of energy is transferred.
Current Conservation at a Junction in a Circuit
At any junction in a circuit, the total current entering the junction is
equal to the total current leaving the junction. This is a consequence of
the conservation of charge: no charge is lost at a junction, so the current
is conserved.

Key Point:

In a parallel circuit, the sum of the currents in the individual branches

equals the current in the main part of the circuit.

Circuits
Series Circuits
In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a
single path for the electric current to follow. Here are the key
characteristics:

 Current: The current is the same through all components because

there is only one path for the current to flow.

 Voltage: The total voltage supplied by the battery or power source

is shared between all components. Each component will have a
voltage drop proportional to its resistance. The sum of the voltage
drops across all components equals the total voltage of the power
source.

 Resistance: The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the

resistances of each individual component. This is expressed as:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
Effects of Adding Components:

 Adding Bulbs: Adding extra bulbs or resistors in series increases

the total resistance, which reduces the current through the entire
circuit. This causes bulbs to become dimmer, as less current flows
through each bulb.
  Switching Off or Breaking a Component: If one component (like
a bulb) fails or is turned off, the entire circuit is broken, and no
current flows, turning off all components.

Parallel Circuits
In a parallel circuit, each component is connected in a separate branch,
and there are multiple paths for the current to follow. The key
characteristics are:

 Current: The current is divided between the different branches.

The total current supplied by the power source is equal to the sum
of the currents in all branches. This means that different branches
can have different currents depending on the resistance of the
components in each branch.

 Voltage: The voltage across each branch is the same as the total
voltage supplied by the power source, regardless of the number of
components in the circuit.

 Resistance: The total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than the

resistance of the lowest-resistance branch.

The formula for total resistance in a parallel circuit is:

= R + R + R …
1 1 1 1
R total 1 2 3

(As more branches are added, the total resistance decreases)

Effects of Adding Components:

 Adding Bulbs: In a parallel circuit, adding extra bulbs does not

affect the brightness of the other bulbs because each branch
receives the full voltage. The current in each branch depends on the
resistance of the components in that branch.

 Switching Off or Breaking a Component: If one component in a

parallel circuit fails or is turned off, the other components continue
to work because there are other paths for the current to flow.

Resistance and Voltage in Circuits

Calculating Resistance in a Series Circuit

To calculate the total resistance in a series circuit, you simply add the
resistances of each component:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
Example:

If a series circuit contains three resistors with values of 2 Ω, 4 Ω, and 6 Ω:

Rtotal = 2Ω + 4Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω
Calculating Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Example:

If a parallel circuit contains three resistors with values of 2 Ω, 4 Ω, and 6

Ω:

= 2+ 4 + 6
1 1 1 1
R total

Rtotal = ¿ + 4 + 6 ¿ × 1 ≈ 1.09Ω
1 1

The total resistance is approximately 1.09 Ω, which is even lower than the
smallest individual resistor in the circuit.

Voltage in Series and Parallel Circuits

Voltage in Series Circuits

In a series circuit, the total voltage is shared between the components.

The voltage drop across each component is proportional to its resistance:

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + …
Example:

If a battery supplies 12 V and the circuit contains two resistors (3 Ω and 6

Ω), the voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance:

V1 = R × Vtotal (Vice Versa)

R1
total

V1 = 9 Ω × 12V = 4V
3Ω

V2 = 9 × 12V = 8V
6

Thus, the voltage drops are 4 V across the 3 Ω resistor and 8 V across the
6 Ω resistor.
Voltage in Parallel Circuits

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same as the
total voltage supplied:

Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3 = …
Example:

If a battery supplies 12 V to a parallel circuit, each branch (regardless of

resistance) will have a voltage of 12 V.

[Another example is provided in the book, Page – 76]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 213 to 214 and 216]

Electrical Resistance
How Current in a Series Circuit Depends on
Applied Voltage and the Number and Nature of
Other Components
In a series circuit, the current depends on the total resistance and the
applied voltage. The relationship is governed by Ohm’s Law:

I= R
V
total

In a series circuit:

 The more components you add (resistors, bulbs, etc.), the greater
the total resistance.

 The higher the total resistance, the lower the current for a given
applied voltage.

 If all components have higher resistance (e.g., using more resistive

materials), the overall current decreases.
How Current Varies with Voltage in Wires,
Resistors, Metal Filament Lamps, and Diodes
Wires: In an ideal conductor (such as a wire with negligible resistance),
the current increases linearly with voltage. This follows Ohm’s Law (V =
IR).

 Resistors: In a fixed resistor, the current also varies linearly with

voltage, provided the resistor’s temperature remains constant. A
graph of current vs. voltage for a resistor would be a straight line
through the origin.

 Metal Filament Lamps: For a metal filament lamp, as the voltage

increases, the filament heats up, causing its resistance to increase.
As a result, the current does not increase linearly with voltage.
The graph of current vs. voltage would curve, showing a decrease in
the rate of current increase as voltage rises.

 Diodes: A diode only allows current to flow in one direction. There is

no current until the threshold voltage is reached. After this, the
current increases rapidly with a small increase in voltage. In reverse
bias (when the voltage is applied in the opposite direction), the
diode blocks current almost completely.

[Graphs are provided in the book, Page – 78]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 201]

Investigating This Experimentally:

1. Set up the circuit: Connect the component (wire, resistor, filament

lamp, or diode) in series with an ammeter to measure current and a
voltmeter to measure voltage.

2. Change the voltage: Use a variable power supply to gradually

increase the voltage across the component.

3. Record the current and voltage: Measure the current flowing

through the component at each voltage level.

4. Plot a graph: Plot a graph of current (I) vs. voltage (V) to observe
the relationship for each component.

Qualitative Effect of Changing Resistance on

Current in a Circuit
According to Ohm’s Law:
 V= R
I

 Increasing resistance: If the resistance increases while the

voltage remains constant, the current will decrease.
 Decreasing resistance: If the resistance decreases while the
voltage remains constant, the current will increase.

Key Point:

Changing the resistance in a circuit has a direct impact on the current.

Higher resistance restricts the flow of current, while lower resistance
allows more current to flow.

Variation of Resistance in Light-Dependent

Resistors (LDRs) and Thermistors
 Light-Dependent Resistors (LDRs): The resistance of an LDR
decreases as the intensity of light falling on it increases. In
darkness, an LDR has high resistance, but in bright light, its
resistance drops significantly.

 Thermistors: The resistance of a thermistor depends on

temperature. The resistance decreases as the temperature
increases. As the thermistor warms up, more current can flow
because its resistance drops.

LDRs: More light = Less resistance = More current.

Thermistors: Higher temperature = Less resistance = More current.

Calculating Currents, Voltages, and Resistances

of Two Resistive Components in Series
The current is the same through both components:

Itotal = R
V total
total

The voltage drop across each component is proportional to its resistance:

V1 = Itotal × R1, V2 = Itotal × R2 (Vice Versa)

Example:

Two resistors of 4 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in series with a 10 V power

supply.

1. Current in the circuit:

 I = 10 Ω = 1A
10V

2. Voltage across each resistor:

V1 = 1A × 4Ω = 4V
V2 = 1A × 6Ω = 6V

Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a phenomenon in which certain materials, when
cooled below a critical temperature (0 Kelvin), and lose all electrical
resistance (molecules stop vibrating). In the superconducting state, an
electric current can flow through the material without any energy loss due
to resistance.

 Key Characteristics:

o Zero resistance: Superconductors have no resistance below

the critical temperature, so current can flow indefinitely
without energy loss.

o Meissner effect: Superconductors expel magnetic fields,

meaning they become perfect diamagnets when in the
superconducting state.

 Applications:

o Magnetic levitation: Superconductors are used in maglev

trains, which can float above the tracks due to the expulsion
of magnetic fields.

o Efficient power transmission: Superconducting cables can

transmit electricity without any losses, making power grids
more efficient.

Electric Charge
Common Electrical Conductors and Insulators
 Conductors: These are materials that allow electric charge (usually
electrons) to flow through them easily. Metals are the most
common conductors because they have free electrons that can
move through the material.
  Insulators: These are materials that do not allow electric charge to
flow easily because their electrons are tightly bound to atoms.
Plastics, rubber, glass, and wood are common insulators.

How Positive and Negative Electrostatic Charges

Are Produced
Electrostatic charges are produced by the loss or gain of electrons:

 Positive charge: Occurs when a material loses electrons. The

material now has more protons than electrons, giving it a net
positive charge.

 Negative charge: Occurs when a material gains electrons. The

material now has more electrons than protons, giving it a net
negative charge.

Investigation: How Insulating Materials Can Be

Charged by Friction
Friction can transfer electrons between two insulating materials. When
two different insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons may be
transferred from one material to the other, leaving one material with an
excess of electrons and the other with a deficit. This creates a static
charge.

Example of Experiment:

1. Materials: Use a plastic rod and a cloth.

2. Procedure: Rub the plastic rod with the cloth.

3. Observation: The rod becomes negatively charged because it

gains electrons from the cloth, and the cloth becomes positively
charged as it loses electrons.

The plastic rod will now attract small objects like paper pieces,
demonstrating that it has become statically charged.

Forces Between Like and Unlike Charges

 Alike charges repel: Two positive charges or two negative charges
will repel each other.

 Unlike charges attract: A positive charge will attract a negative

charge.
Key Point:

The strength of the force of attraction or repulsion depends on the

distance between the charges and the magnitude of the charges involved.
Closer and stronger charges result in more forceful interactions.

Electrostatic Phenomena: Movement of Electrons

Electrostatic phenomena can be explained by the movement of
electrons between materials:

 Friction: When two materials are rubbed together, electrons can

transfer from one to the other, creating a charge imbalance.

 Conduction: If a charged object touches a conductor, electrons can

flow from one to the other, neutralizing the charge.

 Induction: A charged object can cause a redistribution of charges in

a nearby conductor without direct contact, inducing an opposite
charge.

Example:

When you rub a balloon on your hair, electrons move from your hair to the
balloon, making your hair positively charged and the balloon negatively
charged. The balloon can then stick to a wall due to the attraction
between the negative charges on the balloon and the positive charges
induced on the wall's surface.

Potential Dangers of Electrostatic Charge

Electrostatic charges can pose dangers in certain situations, especially
when dealing with flammable materials, such as fuelling aircraft and
tankers. Static charge can build up during these operations and cause
sparks, which may ignite flammable fuels.

 During Fuelling: As fuel flows through pipes or hoses, friction

between the fuel and the pipe can cause a build-up of static
charge. If this static discharge is not controlled, it can result in a
spark.

 Risk of Explosion: If a spark occurs in the presence of flammable

vapours, it can cause a fire or explosion.

How to Avoid It:

 1. Earthing/grounding: Before fuelling, the aircraft or tanker is
connected to the ground with a wire. This allows any built-up static
charge to safely discharge to the Earth, preventing sparks.

2. Anti-static hoses: Fuelling hoses are made from materials that

prevent the build-up of static electricity.

3. Slow fuelling: Fuel is often pumped more slowly to reduce friction

and minimize static generation.

Uses of Electrostatic Charges

Electrostatic charges have practical uses in various technologies,
including photocopiers and inkjet printers:

 Photocopiers:

o A drum inside the copier is coated with a material that

becomes conductive when exposed to light.

o The drum is given a positive charge.

o Light reflects off the original document onto the drum, causing
the illuminated areas to lose their charge.

o Toner particles, which are negatively charged, are attracted

to the positively charged areas of the drum (where the text or
image is).

o The toner is then transferred onto the paper, and heat is

applied to fuse the toner to the paper, creating a permanent
copy.

 Inkjet Printers:

o Tiny droplets of ink are given a charge and passed through an

electric field.

o The charged droplets are directed onto the paper in the

desired pattern to form letters and images.

o The ability to control the movement of charged ink droplets

allows for high-precision printing.

Key Point:

In both devices, the ability to manipulate charged particles allows for

precise control over where the ink or toner is applied, making these
technologies fast and efficient.
 Waves
Difference Between Longitudinal and Transverse
Waves
Transverse Waves: In transverse waves, the particles of the medium
vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Examples:

 Light waves
 Water waves
 Electromagnetic waves

Longitudinal Waves: In longitudinal waves, the particles of the

medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation, creating
compressions and rarefactions.

Examples:

 Sound waves
 Seismic P-waves
 Compression waves in springs

[Wave diagrams are provided in the book, Page – 98]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 128 to 129]

Definitions of Wave Properties

 Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a wave from its rest
position. It represents the energy carried by the wave; higher
amplitude means more energy.

 Wavefront: A line that represents all points in a wave that are at

the same phase or position.

 Frequency (f): The number of waves passing a point per second,

measured in hertz (Hz).

 Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive points in

phase on a wave, such as crest to crest or compression to
compression.

 Period (T): The time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given
point. The period is the reciprocal of frequency:

[Wave description diagrams are provided in the book, Page – 99]

[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 129]
Waves Transfer Energy and Information Without
Transferring Matter
Waves are capable of transferring energy and information from one
location to another without physically moving the medium (matter) itself
over long distances.

For example:

 Sound waves transfer energy through air by making particles

vibrate in place.

 Light waves carry energy from the Sun to the Earth through space
without transporting any physical particles over that distance.

Relationship Between Speed, Frequency, and

Wavelength
The speed of a wave is related to its frequency and wavelength by the
equation:

v = fλ
Where:

v is the wave speed (in meters per second, m/s),

 f is the frequency (in hertz, Hz),


 λ is the wavelength (in meters, m).

Example:

If a wave has a frequency of 5 Hz and a wavelength of 2 meters, its speed

is:

v = 5Hz × 2m = 10m/s

Relationship Between Frequency and Time

(Period)
The frequency and period of a wave are inversely related:

f= T
1

Example:

If a wave has a period of 0.2 seconds, its frequency is:

 f = 0.2 = 5Hz
1

(CAIE) Diffraction of Waves

Diffraction is the bending or spreading of waves when they encounter an
obstacle or pass through a gap or slit. This behaviour occurs with all
types of waves, including sound, light, and water waves.

Key Factors in Diffraction:

1. Wavelength of the Wave: Longer wavelengths tend to diffract

more than shorter wavelengths.

2. Size of the Gap: The extent of diffraction is affected by the size of

the gap the wave passes through. The closer the size of the gap is
to the wavelength of the wave; the more diffraction occurs.

Diffraction Through a Narrow Gap

When waves pass through a narrow gap, where the size of the gap is
comparable to the wavelength of the wave, significant diffraction
occurs. The waves spread out in almost circular wavefronts on the other
side of the gap.

 Liquid Example: If a water wave with a wavelength similar to the

width of the gap passes through, the wavefronts on the other side
will spread out and form circular waves.

 Light Example: Light with a wavelength comparable to the gap

(like a narrow slit) will diffract noticeably, producing a spreading
effect. This can be seen in experiments like the single-slit
diffraction experiment.

Diffraction Through a Wider Gap

When waves pass through a wider gap, where the size of the gap is
much larger than the wavelength, diffraction still occurs but is less
noticeable. The waves do spread out a little, but most of the wave
passes through unbent.

 Example: A wide gap in a harbour wall lets water waves pass

through with only slight spreading. Most of the wavefronts continue
in a straight line after passing through the gap.
  Light Example: If light passes through a wide slit (much larger than
its wavelength), diffraction will still happen, but the wavefronts will
mainly continue in straight lines, with only minimal spreading.

[Diagrams for the diffraction of waves are provided in the book, Page –
132
However, I would suggest to surf around the internet for better examples]

Reflection and Refraction of Waves

 Reflection: When a wave hits a barrier, it bounces back into the
original medium. The angle of incidence (the angle the incoming
wave makes with the normal) is equal to the angle of reflection. This
property is observed in mirrors (light waves) and echoes (sound
waves).

 Refraction: When a wave moves from one medium to another

(e.g., air to water), its speed and wavelength change, which causes
the wave to bend. This change in direction is known as refraction
and is commonly observed in light waves passing through water or
lenses.

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect describes the change in frequency or wavelength of a
wave as the source moves relative to an observer. It explains why sounds
are higher-pitched when they approach you and lower-pitched when they
move away.

 Explanation: When a wave source moves toward an observer, the

waves are compressed, causing an increase in frequency (higher
pitch for sound). When the source moves away, the waves are
stretched, resulting in a decrease in frequency (lower pitch for
sound).

Example:

 Sound Waves: A siren sounds higher-pitched as an ambulance

approaches and lower-pitched as it moves away.

 Light Waves: In astronomy, the Doppler Effect is used to determine

if stars or galaxies are moving toward or away from Earth (redshift
indicates moving away, and blueshift indicates moving closer).
[Check a video on YouTube with headphones on to understand the
concept better]

[Keywords: “Example of Doppler Effect”]

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Type of Waveleng Frequen Uses Effects Precautio
Wave th cy ns
Generally
Broadcasting considere No specific
Radio 103 - 10−2 105 - 1010 and d safe in precautions
Wave (Longest) (Lowest) communicatio normal needed in
ns exposure typical use
levels
Shielded
Internal microwave
Cooking, heating of ovens,
Microwav 10−2 - 10−3 1010 - 1011 satellite body limited
e transmissions tissues exposure in
industrial
settings
Avoid direct
Heaters, night prolonged
Infrared 10−3 - 10−6 1011 - 1014 vision Skin exposure to
equipment burns high-
intensity
sources
Generally Avoid
safe, but staring
Light 10−6 - 10−7 1014 - 1015 Optical fibres, intense directly at
photography light can very bright
damage lights or
the eyes lasers
Damage Use
to skin sunscreen,
Fluorescent cells, wear UV-
−7 −8 15 16
Ultraviol 10 - 10 10 - 10 lamps, increased protective
et sterilization risk of glasses,
 skin avoid
cancer, excessive
potential exposure
blindness
Lead
Risk of shielding,
Medical tissue limited
X-Rays 10−8 - 10−10 1016 - 1018 imaging, damage, exposure,
security increased protective
scanners cancer gear for
risk medical
professiona
ls
Sterilising food High Lead
Gamma 10−10 - 1018 - 1021 and medical cancer shielding,
Ray 10−14 (Highest) equipment risk, DNA minimal
(Shortest) mutations exposure in
medical
field

Light Waves
Light Waves as Transverse Waves
 Light Waves are transverse waves, meaning the oscillations of
particles in the medium (or electromagnetic field) are perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.

 Light waves can be reflected (bounced back from a surface) and

refracted (bent as they pass through different mediums).

The Law of Reflection

The Law of Reflection states that:

 The angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection (r).

 Both angles are measured relative to the normal, a line

perpendicular to the reflective surface at the point of incidence.

Relationship Between Refractive Index, Angle of

Incidence, and Angle of Refraction
The refractive index (n) of a material determines how much light bends
when it enters the material from another medium (like air to glass). This
relationship is described by Snell's Law:

n = sin(r )
sin(i)
Example:

If light enters a glass block (with a refractive index of 1.5) at an angle of

incidence of 30°:

1.5 = sin(r )
sin(30 ° )

sin (r) = 1.5 ≈ 0.33

0.5

r = sin-1(0.33) ≈ 19.47°

So, the angle of refraction is approximately 19.47°

Investigation of Total Internal Reflection in a

Glass Block and Prisms
Total Internal Reflection (TIR) occurs when light attempts to move
from a denser medium (like glass) to a less dense medium (like air) and
the angle of incidence exceeds a certain critical angle. At this point, all
light is reflected back into the denser medium, rather than refracted.

Investigation Steps:

1. Place a ray box near the glass block or prism to direct light at
different angles.

2. Increase the angle of incidence gradually.

3. Observe that at a certain angle (the critical angle), the light no

longer exits the block but is completely reflected inside,
demonstrating Total Internal Reflection.

[More detailed explanations are provided in the book, Page – 118

and 119]
[For CAIE (4 Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 148]
th

Role of Total Internal Reflection in Applications

Total Internal Reflection is used in various applications:

 Optical Fibres: TIR allows light signals to travel long distances

within optical fibres with minimal loss, enabling high-speed data
transmission in telecommunications.
  Endoscopes: Used in medical imaging, endoscopes use TIR within
fibre optics to view internal organs without invasive surgery.

 Bicycle and Car Reflectors: TIR within small prisms redirects light
from vehicle headlights back toward the driver, enhancing visibility
and safety.

 Prismatic Periscopes: Periscopes in submarines or tanks use TIR

in prisms to reflect light from above, allowing users to see over
obstacles.

The Critical Angle

The Critical Angle is the angle of incidence in a denser medium at which
the angle of refraction becomes 90°, causing light to refract along the
boundary. If the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, Total
Internal Reflection occurs.

The critical angle (C) is related to the refractive index by:

sin(C) = n
1

Investigation of Measuring a Glass Block’s

Refractive Index and Critical Angle
Steps to Measure Refractive Index:

1. Shine a light at an angle into the glass block and measure the angle
of incidence and the angle of refraction.

2. Use Snell’s Law to calculate the refractive index.

Steps to Measure Critical Angle:

1. Gradually increase the angle of incidence until the light no longer

exits the glass block, but instead reflects within it.

2. Measure this angle; it is the critical angle for the glass block.

[A snippet of explanation is provided in the book, Page – 118]

[Full explanation for CAIE (4th Edition) provided in, Page – 146 to
147]

Relationship Between Critical Angle and

Refractive Index
The critical angle and refractive index are inversely related by the
formula:
 Sin (C) = n
1

Example:

If the refractive index of a glass block is 1.5, the critical angle is:

Sin (C) = 1.5 ≈ 0.666

1

C = sin-1(0.666) = 41.81°
Thus, the critical angle for glass with a refractive index of 1.5 is
approximately 41.81°

[CAIE] Thin Lenses

Converging (Convex) and Diverging (Concave)
Lenses
 Converging Lens (Convex Lens):

o A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.

o When light rays pass through a convex lens, they are

refracted inward and converge at a point known as the
focal point.

o Uses: Convex lenses are used to correct hyperopia

(farsightedness). In hyperopia, the eye focuses images
behind the retina because the eyeball is too short. A convex
lens converges the light before it enters the eye, allowing it to
focus correctly on the retina.

 Diverging Lens (Concave Lens):

o A concave lens is thinner in the middle than at the edges.

 o When light rays pass through a concave lens, they are
refracted outward, diverging as if they are coming from a
point in front of the lens.

o Uses: Concave lenses are used to correct myopia (near-

sightedness). In myopia, the eye focuses images in front of
the retina because the eyeball is too long. A concave lens
diverges the light before it enters the eye, pushing the focus
back onto the retina.

Principal Focus (Focal Point) of Lenses

 The principal focus (or focal point) of a lens is the point where
light rays parallel to the optical axis converge (for a convex lens) or
appear to diverge from (for a concave lens) after passing through
the lens.

 For a convex lens: The principal focus is the point where light rays
meet after passing through the lens.

 For a concave lens: The principal focus is the point from which
light rays appear to diverge after passing through the lens.

The focal length (f) is the distance between the centre of the lens and
the principal focus.

Investigation: Calculating the Focal Point of a

Converging Lens
To experimentally calculate the focal length of a converging (convex)
lens, you can perform the following investigation:

1. Materials Needed: A convex lens, a distant light source (like the

Sun or a lamp), a screen, and a ruler.

2. Procedure:

o Place the convex lens between the light source and the
screen.

o Move the lens back and forth until a sharp image of the light
source forms on the screen.

o Measure the distance between the lens and the screen where
the sharp image forms. This distance is the focal length of
the lens.
 3. Conclusion: The focal length is the distance at which parallel rays
of light converge to form a focused image.

[Detailed explanation is provided in the book, Page – 151 to 152]

[Ray Diagrams are explained in detail with images, Page – 153]

Using a Single Lens as a Magnifying Glass

A convex lens can be used as a magnifying glass when the object is
placed within the focal length of the lens. This creates a virtual,
magnified image of the object.

 How it works:

o When an object is placed closer to the lens than the focal

length, the light rays do not converge but appear to diverge.
As a result, the viewer sees a magnified image.

o The image is upright (not inverted) and appears on the same

side as the object, making it virtual.

 Effect of Distance:

o Closer to the lens: The closer the object is to the lens

(within the focal length), the larger and more magnified the
virtual image becomes.

o Farther from the lens: As the object moves away from the
lens (closer to or beyond the focal length), the magnification
decreases. Beyond the focal point, the lens produces a real,
inverted image.

Describing Characteristics of an Image

When describing the characteristics of an image formed by a lens, three
key features are considered:

Size: Is the image larger, smaller, or the same size as the object?

Orientation: Is the image upright or inverted?

Type: Is the image real or virtual?

Real Image:

 A real image is formed when light rays converge and meet at a

point.

 It can be projected onto a screen.

 A real image is always inverted (upside down).

Virtual Image:

 A virtual image is formed when light rays diverge and appear to

come from a point behind the lens.

 It cannot be projected onto a screen.

 A virtual image is always upright (right side up).

Formation of Real and Virtual Images

 Real Images:

o A real image forms when light rays passing through a

converging (convex) lens actually meet at a point on the
opposite side of the lens. This typically happens when the
object is placed beyond the focal length of the lens.

o Example: If you place an object at a distance greater than the

focal length of a convex lens, the image formed will be real,
inverted, and can be projected onto a screen.

 Virtual Images:

o A virtual image forms when light rays passing through a lens

do not actually meet but instead appear to come from a point.
This occurs when the object is placed within the focal
length of a convex lens.

o Example: A magnifying glass forms a virtual, upright, and

magnified image when the object is placed within the focal
length of the lens.

[CAIE] Dispersion of
Lightwave
Dispersion refers to the splitting of white light into its component
colours (spectrum) when it passes through a medium, like a prism. This
occurs because different wavelengths (or colours) of light are refracted
by different amounts when they enter or exit a medium.

 White light consists of multiple colours, each with a different

wavelength. The range of colours that make up white light includes
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROYGBIV),
which together form the visible spectrum.

 When white light passes through a prism (or any medium with
varying refractive index), the different wavelengths are refracted by
 different amounts, causing the colours to spread out and form a
spectrum.

Why Dispersion Happens:

 The speed of light changes when it moves from one medium to
another (like from air into glass or water).

 Light with shorter wavelengths (e.g., violet) is refracted (bent)

more than light with longer wavelengths (e.g., red) because
different wavelengths of light slow down by different amounts when
passing through the medium.

 As a result, violet light bends more than red light, causing the
colours to spread out into a spectrum.

Demonstrating Dispersion with a Prism

A prism can be used to demonstrate the dispersion of white light because
of its triangular shape, which causes light to refract twice — once when
entering the prism and once when exiting.

Steps to Demonstrate Dispersion:

1. Direct white light at a glass prism in a dark room. A ray box or a

flashlight can be used to produce a beam of light.

2. When the light enters the prism, it refracts (bends) at the

boundary between air and the glass. As it enters the glass, each
colour within the white light slows down by different amounts,
causing the light to disperse into its component colours.

3. The different colours (each representing a different wavelength)

travel through the glass prism at different speeds, causing them to
spread out.

4. When the light exits the prism, the light refracts again, further
spreading out the colours and forming a spectrum of visible
light on the other side of the prism.

Order of Colours:

The red light (with the longest wavelength) is refracted the least, while
violet light (with the shortest wavelength) is refracted the most. This
spreads the light into the colours of the visible spectrum.

Monochromatic Light
The term monochromatic refers to light consisting of a single
wavelength (or colour). Monochromatic light has only one specific
frequency, so it does not undergo dispersion when passing through a
prism.

 Example: A laser emits monochromatic light because it produces

light of a single colour or wavelength.

 Unlike white light, monochromatic light cannot be split into different

colours using a prism, as it consists of only one colour (one
wavelength).

Sound
Sound Waves as Longitudinal Waves
 Sound waves are longitudinal waves, meaning the particles of
the medium (such as air, water, or solid materials) vibrate parallel
to the direction of wave propagation.

 Compressions and rarefactions are created as sound waves

travel through a medium:

o Compressions: Regions where particles are closer together.

o Rarefactions: Regions where particles are spread out.

Sound waves can be reflected (echoed back) and refracted (bent when
passing through different media).
Frequency Range for Human Hearing
The frequency range for human hearing is approximately 20 Hz to 20
kHz (20,000 Hz):

 Below 20 Hz: Sounds are considered infrasonic and are too low in
frequency for human ears to detect.

 Above 20 kHz: Sounds are considered ultrasonic and are too high
in frequency for human hearing.

Different animals may hear sounds outside this range, such as dogs (up to
40 kHz) and bats (up to 100 kHz).

Investigation of the Speed of Sound Using Echoes

Echoes are reflections of sound waves off surfaces. The speed of sound
can be measured using the time taken for an echo to return.

Procedure:

1. Stand at a known distance from a large, reflective surface (like a

wall).

2. Clap or make a sharp sound and measure the time it takes for the
echo to return.

3. Use the formula:

Speed of Sound = 2 × Distance ¿ the Wall Time for Echoe ¿ return ¿

¿

Distance is 2 times because the sound waves are travelling and returning
via echo

Example:

If a person stands 100 meters from a wall and hears the echo 0.6 seconds
after clapping:

Speed of Sound = 0.6 seconds = 333 m/s

2× 100 meters

So, the speed of sound in air is approximately 333 m/s.

Reflection and Refraction of Sound Waves

 Reflection: Sound waves can bounce off hard surfaces, creating
echoes. This reflection allows us to hear sounds that bounce back
after hitting objects.

Example: In a large, empty hall, a person may hear echoes of their own
voice because sound waves reflect off the walls.
  Refraction: When sound waves pass through different media (e.g.,
from air to water), their speed changes, causing the sound to bend.
This refraction can alter how we perceive the direction and intensity
of sound.

Example: Sound can be heard more clearly over water at night because
the cooler air near the water’s surface slows down the sound waves,
refracting them downward.

Using an Oscilloscope and Microphone to Display

Sound Waves
 Microphone: Converts sound waves into electrical signals by
detecting the pressure variations (compressions and rarefactions) in
the air caused by sound.

 Oscilloscope: Displays these electrical signals as a waveform on a

screen, allowing us to visualize sound waves.

When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope:

 High-frequency sounds appear as waves with short wavelengths

on the screen.

Investigating the Frequency of a Sound Wave

Using an Oscilloscope
To measure the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope:

1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope.

2. Observe the waveform of the sound displayed on the screen.

3. Measure the time period (T) of one complete wave (peak to peak
or trough to trough).

4. Calculate the frequency using the formula:

f= T
1

Example:
If the time period of the wave is 0.005 seconds:

f = 0.005
1

Thus, the frequency of the sound wave is 200 Hz.

Relationship Between Pitch and Frequency

The pitch of a sound is related to its frequency:

 Higher frequency results in a higher pitch (e.g., a soprano singer

has a higher pitch).

 Lower frequency results in a lower pitch (e.g., a bass singer has

a lower pitch).

Thus, a sound with a frequency of 1000 Hz has a higher pitch than a

sound with a frequency of 100 Hz.

Relationship Between Loudness and Amplitude

The loudness of a sound is determined by the amplitude of the wave:

 Larger amplitude results in a louder sound.

 Smaller amplitude results in a quieter sound.

On an oscilloscope, loud sounds have taller waveforms (higher amplitude),

while quiet sounds have shorter waveforms (lower amplitude).

(Misc) Using Soundwaves to Identify the Depth of

the Ocean
To find the depth of the ocean, a technique called echo sounding or
sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is used. This method relies on
sound waves to measure the time it takes for a sound pulse to travel to
the ocean floor and back. By knowing the speed of sound in water, the
depth can be calculated.

Steps to Calculate Ocean Depth Using Sound Waves

1. Emit a Sound Pulse: A sonar device on a ship emits a pulse of
sound directed toward the ocean floor.

2. Record the Echo: The sound pulse travels to the ocean floor,
reflects off the seabed, and returns to the sonar receiver on the ship
as an echo.
 3. Measure the Time Interval: Measure the time taken (t) for the
pulse to travel to the seabed and back to the receiver.

4. Calculate the Depth:

The formula for depth D is based on the speed of sound in

water (v), which is approximately 1500m/s in seawater.
o

o Since the sound wave travels down to the ocean floor and
back up, the total distance travelled by the sound pulse is
twice the depth.

Total Distance = v × t

D= 2
vt

(Again, it’s divided by 2 because the waves are going down and coming
back up)

Example:

Suppose a sonar pulse takes 4 seconds to travel from the ship to the
ocean floor and back.

D= = 3000 meters
1500 m/s × 4 s
2

Thus, the depth of the ocean at that location is 3000 meters.

(Misc) Why does everything sound louder at

night compared to the morning?
At night, sounds often seem louder and clearer than during the day, and
this is primarily due to a combination of environmental conditions and
atmospheric effects:

1. Reduced Background Noise

 During the night, human activity decreases significantly, leading to

a quieter environment. Fewer cars, machinery, and general
activities mean there's less background noise.
  With minimal competing sounds, even low-level noises can stand
out more, making everything seem louder.

2. Temperature Inversion

 At night, the ground cools down faster than the air above it,
especially in clear conditions. This causes a temperature
inversion, where warmer air sits above cooler air near the ground.

 Sound waves travel faster in warmer air, so during an inversion, the

sound waves are refracted or bent back down toward the ground.
This phenomenon prevents sound from dissipating upwards as it
would during the day, effectively trapping it near the ground,
making it more intense and easier to hear over longer distances.

3. Atmospheric Conditions

 Humidity and atmospheric pressure tend to be higher at night,

especially in cooler climates. Sound waves travel slightly better in
humid air, enhancing sound transmission.

4. Less Interference from Wind

 During the day, wind often rises due to warming by the sun, and this
can carry sound waves away or disperse them. At night, when wind
is generally calmer, sound can travel in a more direct path to your
ears.

Summary

The combination of reduced background noise, temperature

inversion, favourable atmospheric conditions, and calmer winds at
night contributes to sounds seeming louder and more distinct. This is why
distant or faint sounds, like footsteps or voices, often feel amplified when
it's quiet at night.

Soundwaves through different mediums

Mediu Speed Explanation Example
m
Solid Fastest Particles in solids are closely Sound travels
packed and have strong through metal,
intermolecular bonds, wood, glass.
allowing sound waves to
transmit quickly as particles
can easily transfer vibrations.
Liquid Moderate Particles in liquids are less Sound traveling
tightly packed than in solids, in water, oil,
 so the sound speed is slower. and other
Sound waves are still able to liquids.
propagate as particles can
move and vibrate, but with
less efficiency than in solids.
Gas Slowest Particles in gases are far Sound travels in
apart, with weak air (like voices,
intermolecular forces. Sound music) and
travels slowly because other gases.
particles must travel further
before they collide and pass
on vibrations.
Vacuu No In a vacuum, there are no Space (why
m Transmissio particles to vibrate, so sound astronauts use
n cannot travel at all. radios to
communicate).

Key Points

 Solids transmit sound the fastest because of strong bonds and

close particle arrangement.

 Liquids transmit sound slower than solids but faster than gases, as
particles are mobile but still close enough to transmit vibrations.

 Gases transmit sound the slowest due to large spaces between

particles, making vibration transfer less efficient.

 Vacuum cannot transmit sound because sound waves need a

medium with particles to propagate.

In summary, sound travels fastest through solids, slower through liquids,

and slowest through gases, with no transmission in a vacuum.

Energy Transfer
Energy Transfers Involving the 8 Energy Stores
Energy Store Description Example of Transfer
Energy of a moving A moving car has
Object kinetic energy; when it
Kinetic Energy brakes, this energy is
transferred to thermal
energy (heat) in the
 brakes.
Energy due to the Heating water in a
Thermal Energy temperature of an kettle: Electrical
object energy is transferred
to thermal energy in
the water.
Energy store in Food digestion:
chemical bonds Chemical energy in
Chemical Energy food is transferred to
kinetic and thermal
energy in the body.
Energy stored in an A book on a shelf has
Gravitational object due to its gravitational potential
Potential Energy height in a energy, which is
gravitational field. transferred to kinetic
energy when it falls.
Energy stored in A compressed spring
objects when they are stores elastic potential
Elastic Potential stretched or energy, which is
Energy compressed. transferred to kinetic
energy when released.
Energy stored in Two repelling magnets
magnetic fields due to store magnetic
Magnetic Energy the position of energy, which is
magnets or magnetic transferred to kinetic
materials. energy when they are
moved apart.
Energy stored due to A charged balloon
the positions of sticks to a wall due to
Electrostatic Energy electric charges. electrostatic energy,
which is transferred
when the charges
neutralize.
Energy stored in the Nuclear reactions
Nuclear Energy nucleus of an atom. (such as in the Sun)
transfer nuclear
energy into thermal
and light energy.
[Sankey’s Diagram explanation is provided in the book, Page – 136]
[For CAIE (4th Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 63]

Principle of Conservation of Energy

The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that:
 “Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transferred from one form to another.” – Herr (Albert)
Einstein

In any closed system, the total energy remains constant, although it

may be converted between different energy stores or transferred to the
surroundings (usually as heat or sound).

Example:

 In a roller coaster, at the highest point, most of the energy is stored

as gravitational potential energy. As the coaster descends, this
energy is converted into kinetic energy.

 When friction acts, some of the energy is also transferred to the

surroundings as thermal energy (heat) due to air resistance and
friction between the wheels and the track.

Efficiency, Useful Energy Output, and Total

Energy Output
Efficiency is a measure of how well energy is converted from one form to
another without being wasted (often as heat, sound, or light). It is the
ratio of useful energy output to total energy input.

The formula for efficiency is:

Efficiency = Total Energy Input × 100

Useful Energy Output

Alternatively, efficiency can also be calculated using power (useful power

output and total power input).

 Useful energy output: Energy that is used for the intended

purpose of the system.

 Total energy input: All the energy supplied to the system.

Mathematical Example:

A motor takes in 500 J of electrical energy and produces 350 J of useful

kinetic energy. The rest is lost as thermal energy.

Efficiency = 500 J × 100 = 70%

350 J
 Thermal Energy
Thermal Energy Transfer: Conduction,
Convection, and Radiation
Conduction:

 This is the transfer of thermal energy through a substance by the

vibration of particles. It mainly occurs in solids.
 In metals, free electrons also play a significant role, as they move
more freely and transfer energy quickly.
 Example: Holding a metal rod with one end in a flame. The heat is
conducted from the hot end to the cooler end.

Convection:

 This occurs in fluids (liquids and gases) and involves the movement
of particles. Hot fluid becomes less dense and rises, while cooler,
denser fluid sinks, creating a convection current.
 Example: Boiling water in a pot—water at the bottom heats up,
rises, and cooler water sinks to replace it.

Radiation:

 This is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves

(infrared radiation), without needing a medium (it can occur in a
vacuum).
 Example: Feeling the heat from the Sun, even though the space
between Earth and the Sun is mostly a vacuum.

Investigation: Conductivity of Different Metals

Objective: Investigate how well different metals conduct heat.

Steps:

1. Attach small wax beads at equal distances along metal rods of

different materials (e.g., copper, aluminium, steel).

2. Heat one end of each rod and observe how quickly the wax beads
melt.

3. Conclusion: Metals like copper and aluminium are better

conductors of heat, so the wax melts faster on those rods compared
to steel or iron.

[Images for all the investigations are provided in the book, Page – 140 to
142, 144 and 146]
[For CAIE (4 Edition) it’s provided in, Page – 115 to 120 and 122]
th
Role of Convection in Everyday Phenomena
Convection occurs in many daily processes, including:

 Heating a room: A heater warms the air near it, causing the warm
air to rise and cooler air to replace it, forming convection currents
that circulate warm air throughout the room.

 Weather systems: Warm air rises in the atmosphere, creating wind

and weather patterns due to convection.

 Boiling water: As the water heats, convection currents form,

ensuring the heat is distributed evenly.

Investigation: Convection Currents in Water

Objective: Visualize convection currents in water.

Steps:

1. Fill a beaker with water and place it on a heat source.

2. Add a few drops of food colouring near the bottom of the beaker.

3. As the water heats, observe how the coloured water rises and cooler
water sinks, forming convection currents.

4. Conclusion: This demonstrates how convection currents transfer

heat throughout the liquid.

Emission and Absorption of Radiation: Surface

and Temperature
 Emission of radiation: Hot objects emit infrared radiation. The
hotter the object, the more radiation it emits.

 Absorption of radiation: Dark, matte surfaces absorb radiation

better than light, shiny surfaces, which tend to reflect radiation.

 Example: A black car parked in the sun will heat up faster than a
white or silver car because the black surface absorbs more
radiation.
Investigation: Radiating Heat from Different
Surfaces
Objective: Investigate how different surfaces radiate heat.

Steps:

1. Heat objects with different surfaces (black, white, shiny metal) to

the same temperature.

2. Place a thermometer near each surface and measure how quickly

they cool down.

3. Conclusion: Dark, matte surfaces emit heat faster than shiny,

reflective surfaces.

Energy-Efficient Houses
Energy-efficient houses are designed to minimize heat loss and reduce
energy consumption. They function using various methods:

 Insulation: Walls, floors, and roofs are insulated to reduce heat loss
through conduction.

 Double glazing: Windows have two layers of glass with an air gap
to reduce heat loss by conduction and convection.

 Draught-proofing: Seals around doors and windows reduce heat

loss by preventing cold air from entering and warm air from
escaping.

 Solar panels: Capture sunlight and convert it into electricity or use

it for heating water.

These measures reduce the amount of energy needed to heat or cool the
house, making it more energy efficient.

Reducing Unwanted Energy Transfer (Insulation)

Insulation is key to reducing unwanted energy transfer in buildings,
clothes, and even in the animal kingdom.

 Penguin Gathering: Penguins huddle together in large groups to

conserve heat. The penguins in the middle are warmer, as they lose
less heat to their surroundings, while those on the outside take turns
being exposed to the cold.
 Clothing: Insulating materials like wool and down trap air, which
reduces heat transfer from the body to the environment.
  Thermos flasks: Designed with vacuum layers between walls to
minimize heat transfer by conduction and convection, keeping
liquids hot or cold for longer.

Work and Power

Relationship Between Work Done, Force, and
Distance
Work done (W) is the energy transferred when a force causes an object
to move in the direction of the force. The formula for work done is:

W = Fd
Mathematical Example:

If a force of 50 N is applied to move an object 5 meters in the direction of

the force:

W = 50N × 5m = 250J
(Thus, 250 joules of work are done)

Work Done Equals Energy Transferred

When work is done on an object, it results in the transfer of energy. The
energy transferred to the object is equal to the work done on it. For
example:

 When you lift a weight, you transfer energy to it, increasing its
gravitational potential energy.

 When a car accelerates, the work done on it increases its kinetic

energy.

In all cases, the work done on an object corresponds to the energy

transferred to that object.

Relationship Between Gravitational Potential

Energy, Mass, Gravitational Field Strength, and
Height
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is the energy an object
possesses due to its position in a gravitational field. The formula for GPE
is:

GPE = mgh
Where:

 m = mass (in kilograms, kg),

 g = gravitational field strength (approximately 9.8 m/s2 on Earth),
 h = height (in meters, m).

Mathematical Example:

If a 10 kg object is lifted to a height of 5 meters:

GPE = 10kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 5m = 490J

(Thus, the object has 490 joules of gravitational potential energy)

Relationship Between Kinetic Energy, Mass, and

Velocity
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.
The formula for kinetic energy is:

KE = ½mv2
Mathematical Example:

If a car with a mass of 1000 kg is moving at a velocity of 10 m/s:

KE = ½ × 1000kg × (10 m/s)2 = 50,000J

(Thus, the car has 50,000 joules of kinetic energy)

Conservation of Energy: Link Between GPE, KE,

and Work
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, only transferred or converted from one form to
another. In the context of gravitational potential energy (GPE),
kinetic energy (KE), and work:

 When an object is lifted, work is done to increase its gravitational

potential energy.

 When the object falls, the gravitational potential energy is

converted into kinetic energy as it accelerates.

 At the lowest point, all the GPE is converted into KE (neglecting air
resistance).
Power as the Rate of Energy Transfer or Work
Done
Power (P) is the rate at which energy is transferred or work is done. The
formula for power is:

P= t
W

Mathematical Example:

If a machine does 2000 J of work in 10 seconds:

P= 10 = 200 W
2000 J

Work and Power

Relationship Between Work Done, Force, and
Distance
Work done (W) is the energy transferred when a force causes an object
to move in the direction of the force. The formula for work done is:

W = Fd
Mathematical Example:

If a force of 50 N is applied to move an object 5 meters in the direction of

the force:

W = 50N × 5m = 250 J
(Thus, 250 joules of work is done)

Work Done Equals Energy Transferred

When work is done on an object, it results in the transfer of energy. The
energy transferred to the object is equal to the work done on it. For
example:

 When you lift a weight, you transfer energy to it, increasing its
gravitational potential energy.

 When a car accelerates, the work done on it increases its kinetic

energy.

In all cases, the work done on an object corresponds to the energy

transferred to that object.
Relationship Between Gravitational Potential
Energy, Mass, Gravitational Field Strength, and
Height
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is the energy an object
possesses due to its position in a gravitational field. The formula for GPE
is:

GPE = mgh
Mathematical Example:

If a 10 kg object is lifted to a height of 5 meters:

GPE = 10kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 5m = 490J

(Thus, the object has 490 joules of gravitational potential energy)

Relationship Between Kinetic Energy, Mass, and

Velocity
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.
The formula for kinetic energy is:

KE = ½mv2
Mathematical Example:

If a car with a mass of 1000 kg is moving at a velocity of 10 m/s:

KE = ½ × 1000kg × (10m/s)2 = 50,000 J

(Thus, the car has 50,000 joules of kinetic energy)

Conservation of Energy: Link Between GPE, KE,

and Work
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, only transferred or converted from one form to
another. In the context of gravitational potential energy (GPE),
kinetic energy (KE), and work:

 When an object is lifted, work is done to increase its gravitational

potential energy.
  When the object falls, the gravitational potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy as it accelerates.

 At the lowest point, all the GPE is converted into KE (neglecting air
resistance).

Example:

Consider a pendulum. At its highest point, the pendulum has maximum

gravitational potential energy. As it swings down, this energy is
converted into kinetic energy, with maximum kinetic energy at the
lowest point of the swing.

Power as the Rate of Energy Transfer or Work

Done
Power (P) is the rate at which energy is transferred, or work is done. 1
watt is equal to 1 joule per second. It measures how quickly work is
done or energy is transferred.

Relationship Between Power, Work Done, and

Time
The relationship between power, work done, and time is given by the
formula:

P= t
W

Energy Resources and Electricity

Generation
Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil, Natural Gas)
Chemical energy → Thermal energy → Kinetic energy →
Electrical energy
Process Description:

 Fossil fuels contain chemical energy stored from ancient

organisms.
 They are burned in power stations to heat water, producing steam.
  The thermal energy from combustion converts water into steam,
which spins turbines (converting thermal to kinetic energy).
 The rotating turbines drive generators, converting kinetic energy
into electrical energy.

Advantage:

 Reliable and capable of generating large amounts of electricity on

demand.
 Well-established infrastructure.

Disadvantage:

 Non-renewable (finite resources).

 Produces greenhouse gases (CO₂) contributing to climate change.
 Pollution (acid rain from sulphur emissions).

Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy → Thermal energy → Kinetic energy →
Electrical energy
Process Description:

 Nuclear fission in uranium or plutonium nuclei releases nuclear

energy.
 The energy heats water to produce steam.
 The steam’s thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy by
spinning turbines.
 The turbines power generators, converting kinetic energy into
electrical energy.

Advantage:

 High energy output from small fuel amounts.

 No CO₂ emissions during electricity generation.

Disadvantage:

 Produces hazardous nuclear waste that remains radioactive for

thousands of years.
 Risk of nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).
  High initial cost and long construction time for plants.

Solar Power
Light energy → Electrical energy
Process Description:

Solar panels (photovoltaic cells) convert light energy from the Sun directly
into electrical energy through the photoelectric effect.

Advantage:

 Renewable and abundant in sunny regions.

 No greenhouse gas emissions.
 Low running costs once installed.

Disadvantage:

 Intermittent power generation (depends on sunlight).

 High initial installation cost.
 Large areas needed for significant energy production.

Wind Power
Kinetic energy → Electrical energy
Process Description:

 Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of moving air.

 The kinetic energy of the wind spins the turbine blades, driving a
generator to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Advantage:

 Renewable, clean, and sustainable.

 No CO₂ emissions.

Disadvantage:

 Wind is intermittent and not always reliable.

 Requires large land or offshore areas.
 Can be noisy and may impact wildlife (e.g., bird strikes).
Hydroelectric Power
Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy → Electrical
energy
Process Description:

 Water stored in dams has gravitational potential energy.

 As water flows down through turbines, gravitational potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 The turbines drive generators, converting kinetic energy into
electrical energy.

Advantage:

 Renewable and can produce large amounts of electricity.

 Can store water for future use, acting as a backup.
 No direct CO₂ emissions.

Disadvantage:

 Dams disrupt local ecosystems and displace communities.

 Expensive to build and maintain.
 Limited to areas with suitable water sources.

Tidal Power
Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy → Electrical
energy
Process Description:

 The movement of tides due to the gravitational pull of the Moon and
Earth generates gravitational potential energy in water.
 This water flows through turbines, converting kinetic energy into
electrical energy.
Advantage:

 Renewable and predictable (based on tidal movements).

 No CO₂ emissions.

Disadvantage:

 Limited suitable sites for tidal power stations.

 Can disrupt marine ecosystems.
 High construction costs.

Geothermal Energy
Thermal energy → Kinetic energy → Electrical energy
Process Description:

 Heat from the Earth's core is used to heat water underground.

 The steam from heated water rises and spins turbines, converting
thermal energy into kinetic energy.
 The turbines drive generators to convert kinetic energy into
electrical energy.

Advantage:

 Renewable and provides consistent power.

 No direct CO₂ emissions.

Disadvantage:

 Limited to regions with geothermal activity

Supply and Demand of Energy Resources and

Their Cost
Fossil Fuels:

 Supply: Fossil fuels are finite and non-renewable, and the

availability of reserves is decreasing over time.

 Demand: The demand for fossil fuels remains high because of their
reliability for base-load electricity generation.
  Cost: Fossil fuel prices can be volatile, influenced by political,
economic, and environmental factors. Over time, as reserves
decrease, costs are likely to rise.

Nuclear Power:

 Supply: Uranium, the fuel for nuclear power, is finite, but relatively
abundant.

 Demand: High demand due to the need for low-carbon electricity

generation.

 Cost: High initial construction costs, but lower operating costs once
plants are running. Waste disposal and decommissioning add to
long-term costs.

Solar Power:

 Supply: Solar energy is abundant, but its availability depends on

geographic location and time of day.

 Demand: Demand is growing as solar technology becomes more

efficient and costs decrease.

 Cost: Solar panels have high upfront costs, but operational costs
are very low. As technology improves, the cost of solar energy
continues to decrease.

Wind Power:

 Supply: Wind energy is renewable, but intermittent. Wind farms

require specific geographical locations (open plains, offshore).

 Demand: Increasing demand as countries aim to reduce carbon

emissions.

 Cost: Wind power has high installation costs, but operational costs
are low. Government subsidies can make it more affordable.

Hydroelectric Power:

 Supply: Water is a renewable resource, but suitable locations for

large dams are limited.

 Demand: High demand in areas with access to large rivers or

reservoirs.
  Cost: High initial construction cost, but low operational costs once
the infrastructure is in place. Dams also provide water storage and
flood control benefits.

Tidal Power:

 Supply: Tides are a reliable, renewable resource. However, tidal

energy is geographically limited to coastal regions.

 Demand: Growing demand as part of the renewable energy mix but

limited by suitable locations.

 Cost: High initial construction costs and environmental concerns

make tidal power relatively expensive.

Geothermal Energy:

 Supply: Renewable but limited to regions with geothermal activity

(such as Iceland, the Philippines, etc.).

 Demand: Moderate demand due to geographical limitations.

 Cost: High drilling and plant setup costs, but low running costs once
established.

Overall Supply and Demand Trends:

 To meet demand while ensuring a stable energy supply, many

countries use a mix of renewable and non-renewable sources.

 As fossil fuel reserves decline, the world is increasingly transitioning

to renewable energy sources. Solar, wind, and other renewable
technologies are seeing significant investment and expansion as
countries aim to reduce their carbon footprints.

 The costs of renewables have decreased sharply due to

technological advancements, making them more competitive
compared to fossil fuels and nuclear power.

 Peak demand periods, like winter evenings, often require backup

power from fossil fuel or nuclear plants, while renewables play a key
role in reducing emissions during times of lower demand.

Density and Pressure

Relationship Between Density, Mass, and Volume
The density (ρ) of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume.
The formula is:
 ρ= v
m

Mathematical Example:

If an object has a mass of 500 kg and occupies a volume of 2 m³:

ρ= = 250 kg/m3
500 kg
3
2

Investigation: Density of Solids

Objective: To measure the density of a solid object (regular or irregular
shape).

Steps:

1. Regular-shaped object:

o Measure the dimensions of the object (length, width, height)

using a ruler.

a cuboid, V = l × w × h).
o Calculate the volume using the formula for the shape (e.g., for

o Measure the mass using a balance.

Calculate the density using ρ = v

m
o

2. Irregular-shaped object:

o Measure the mass of the object using a balance.

o Use a displacement method: Submerge the object in water

and measure the volume of water displaced (this equals the
volume of the object).

Calculate the density using ρ = v

m
o

Relationship Between Pressure, Force, and Area

Pressure (P) is defined as the force applied per unit area. The
formula for pressure is:
 P= A
F

Where:

 P = pressure (in pascals, Pa),

 F = force (in newtons, N),
 A = area (in square meters, m2)
Mathematical Example:

If a force of 600 N is applied over an area of 2 m²:

P= 2 = 300Pa
600 N
2m
(Thus, the pressure is 300 Pa)

Pressure Under a Solid

Pressure beneath a solid object depends on the weight of the object and
the area over which it is spread. The larger the area, the lower the
pressure, and vice versa.

For example: A person standing on soft ground will sink less if they wear
snowshoes (which spread their weight over a larger area), thus reducing
the pressure on the ground.

Pressure in Gases and Liquids at Rest

In a gas or liquid at rest, pressure at a point act equally in all
directions. This happens because the particles in a fluid (liquid or gas)
are constantly moving and colliding, applying equal force in all directions.

Example:

 In a balloon, the air inside exerts pressure on all parts of the

balloon equally, causing it to expand uniformly.

 In a swimming pool, the water exerts pressure on all sides of a

submerged object equally.
Relationship Between Pressure Difference,
Height, Density, and Gravitational Field Strength
The pressure difference between two points in a liquid is determined by
the height difference, the density of the liquid, and the gravitational field
strength. The formula for pressure difference is:

∆P = ρgh
Where:

 ΔP = pressure difference (in pascals, Pa),

Mathematical Example:

water (ρ=1000 kg/m3) with a height difference of 10 meters:

If you want to calculate the pressure difference between two points in

ΔP = 1000 kg/m3 × 9.8 m/s2 × 10 meters = 98,000 Pa

(Thus, the pressure difference between the two points is 98,000 Pa)

Pressure and Depth: How Pressure Increases

with Depth
As you go deeper in a liquid, the pressure increases. This is because the
weight of the liquid above exerts force on the liquid below. The deeper you
go, the more liquid there is above, and thus, the greater the force (and
pressure) exerted.

The formula to calculate the pressure at a certain depth in a liquid is:

P = ρgh
Where:

 P = pressure difference (in pascals, Pa),

Mathematical Example:

To calculate the pressure at a depth of 20 meters in seawater (ρ = 1025

kg/m3):
P = 1025 kg/m3 × 9.8 m/s2 × 20m = 200,900 Pa
(Thus, the pressure at 20 meters deep in seawater is 200,900 Pa)
 States of Matter
Heating a System: Changes in Energy and
Temperature
When a system is heated, the energy transferred to the particles in the
system increases their kinetic energy. Depending on the amount of
energy transferred, this can result in:

 An increase in the temperature of the system.

 A change of state if enough energy is provided to break or weaken

the bonds between particles (such as melting or evaporation).

In solids, heating causes particles to vibrate more, leading to an increase

in temperature. In liquids and gases, heating increases the movement of
particles, raising their temperature and sometimes causing changes in
state (e.g., boiling or condensation).

Changes of State: Solid, Liquid, Gas

 Melting (Solid to Liquid): As a solid is heated, its particles gain
energy, vibrate more, and eventually break free from their fixed
positions. This forms a liquid.

 Freezing (Liquid to Solid): The opposite of melting. Particles lose

energy, move slower, and arrange into a fixed structure, forming a
solid.

 Boiling/Evaporation (Liquid to Gas): When a liquid is heated,

particles gain enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces and
spread apart, forming a gas.

 Condensation (Gas to Liquid): The opposite of boiling. Gas

particles lose energy, slow down, and come closer together to form
a liquid.

Example: When ice melts, it changes from solid (ice) to liquid

(water). When water evaporates, it changes from liquid to gas
(water vapor).
Arrangement and Motion of Particles in Solids,
Liquids, and Gases
State Arrangement Motion Molecular Force
Solid Particles are tightly Particles vibrate Strong forces hold
packed in a around fixed particles in fixed
regular, fixed positions. positions.
structure.
Liquid Particles are close Particles move Weaker forces than
together but not in freely but remain in solids; particles
a fixed structure. close together. can slide past each
other.
Gas Particles are far Particles move Very weak forces
apart and freely and quickly in between particles;
randomly all directions. they are far apart.
distributed.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity (c) is the amount of energy required to change

thermal energy (ΔQ) of a substance depends on its mass, specific heat

the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1°C. The change in

capacity, and temperature change. The formula is:

∆Q = mc∆T
Where:

 ΔQ = change in thermal energy (in joules, J),

 m = mass of the substance (in kilograms, kg),
 c = specific heat capacity (in J/kg °C),
 ΔT = change in temperature (in degrees Celsius, °C).

Mathematical Example:
If 2 kg of water (specific heat capacity of 4200 J/kg °C) s heated from 20°C
to 100°C, the energy required is:

∆Q = 2kg × 4200 J/kg °C × (100 °C – 20 °C) = 672,000 J

(Thus, 672,000 J of energy is needed to heat the water)
Investigation: Measuring Specific Heat Capacity
Objective: Measure the specific heat capacity of a substance.

Steps:

1. Measure the mass of the substance.

2. Heat the substance using a known amount of energy (e.g., using an

electrical heater).

3. Measure the temperature change.

4. Use the formula ΔQ=mcΔT to calculate the specific heat capacity

c

Investigation: Temperature Change During a

Change of State
Objective: Observe the temperature change during a phase change.

Steps:

1. Heat ice and record its temperature as it melts into water.

2. Observe that the temperature remains constant during melting

(energy is used to break bonds rather than increase temperature).

3. Repeat the process for boiling water into steam.

Molecules in a Gas: Random Motion and Pressure

Molecules in a gas move in random motion and collide with the walls of
the container, exerting pressure. The pressure exerted by a gas depends
on the number of collisions and the speed of the molecules.

Gas Law (Boyle’s Law):

temperature, the pressure (P) and volume (V) are inversely

 Boyle’s Law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant

proportional:

PV = Constant
Mathematical Example:
If a gas has a volume of 2 m³ at a pressure of 100 kPa, and the volume is
reduced to 1 m³, the pressure increases to:

P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
100 × 2 = P2 × 1
P2 = 200 kPa

Absolute Zero
Absolute Zero is the temperature at which particles have minimal
kinetic energy and stop moving. This occurs at -273°C, which is 0
Kelvin (K). At absolute zero, no heat energy is present, and molecular
motion ceases.

The Kelvin Scale of Temperature

The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale, starting at absolute
zero. The formula to convert between Celsius and Kelvin is:

T(K) = T(°C) + 273

Example:

A temperature of 25°C is:

T(K) = 25+ 273 = 298 K

Increase in Temperature and Average Speed of

Gas Molecules
As the temperature of a gas increases, the average kinetic energy of
the molecules increases, making them move faster. This increase in
molecular speed results in more frequent and forceful collisions with the
container walls, increasing the pressure

Kelvin Temperature and Kinetic Energy of Gas

Molecules
The Kelvin temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy of its molecules. This means that if the
temperature in Kelvin is doubled, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules also doubles.
Pressure-Volume Relationship for a Fixed Mass of
Gas (Boyle’s Law)
For a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, the pressure and
volume are inversely proportional. As volume decreases, pressure
increases, and vice versa.

Pressure-Temperature Relationship for a Fixed

Mass of Gas at Constant Volume (Gay-Lussac’s
Law)
For a fixed amount of gas at constant volume, the pressure (P) is
directly proportional to the temperature (T) in Kelvin:

=
P1 P2
T1 T2

Mathematical Example:

If a gas has a pressure of 100 kPa at 300 °K and the temperature is

increased to 600 °K, the new pressure is:

=
100 kPa P2
300 ° K 600 ° K

P2 =
100× 600
300

P2 = 200 kPa
(Thus, the pressure doubles to 200 kPa)

Relationship Between Pressure and Volume at

Constant Temperature
For a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, pressure and
volume are inversely proportional (Boyle's Law):

P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
Mathematical Example:

V1=4 m3 and P1=100 kPa, then if the volume is reduced to 2m3,

If the volume of a gas is halved, its pressure will double. For example, if

pressure becomes:

100 × 4 = P2 × 2
 P2 = 200 kPa
(Thus, the pressure is 200 kPa when the volume is halved)

(CAIE) Investigation: The Effect of Temperature

on Pressure when Volume is Constant
This investigation explores how the pressure of a gas changes when the
temperature of the gas increases, while keeping the volume constant.
The relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas (with
constant volume) is described by Gay-Lussac’s Law.

Objective of the Investigation:

To investigate how increasing the temperature of a gas affects its pressure
when the volume is kept constant.

Procedure:
1. Set Up the Equipment:

o Place the sealed container filled with a gas (air, for instance)
in a water bath that can be heated. The volume of the gas
inside the container should be constant.

o Attach the pressure sensor or manometer to measure the

pressure inside the container.

o Insert the thermometer into the water bath to record the

temperature.

2. Record Initial Data:

o Start by cooling the water bath using ice to a low temperature

(e.g., 0°C or lower).
 o Measure and record the initial temperature (T1T_1T1) and
initial pressure (P1P_1P1) of the gas inside the container.

3. Increase the Temperature:

o Gradually heat the water bath, increasing the temperature in

small increments (e.g., 10°C at a time).

o At each temperature increment, wait for the gas to reach

thermal equilibrium and record the temperature (T2T_2T2)
and the corresponding pressure (P2P_2P2) of the gas.

o Repeat this process until the temperature of the water bath

reaches a significantly high value (e.g., 90°C or higher).

4. Plot the Results:

o Plot a graph of pressure (P) against temperature (T in

Kelvin).

o According to Gay-Lussac’s law, the graph should show a

straight line, demonstrating a direct proportionality between
pressure and temperature.

Expected Results:
As the temperature of the gas increases, the pressure of the gas also
increases, assuming the volume remains constant. The graph of pressure
versus temperature should show a linear relationship, indicating that
pressure is directly proportional to temperature.

 At 0 K (absolute zero), the pressure of the gas would theoretically

drop to zero because the gas molecules would have no kinetic
energy and thus would exert no pressure.

 As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the gas

molecules increases, leading to more frequent and forceful
collisions with the walls of the container, which results in an
increase in pressure.