UNIT – I

COMPUTER SYSTEM:
 A Computer is an electronic device which performs operations such as accepts the data, stores the data,
manipulates or process the data according to a pre-stored instructions and produces the desired result. All
these tasks are performed at high-speed and accuracy.
 A Computer computes the data (input) supplied to it and generates information (output).
 A Computer is an electronic device which takes the input, processes it, and gives the output according to the
user needs.
 A computer is a system made of two major components: Hardware and software.
Hardware: Hardware of a computer system are the physical components which we can touch and feel.
 Example: Keyboard and Mouse.
 The hardware of a computer system can be classified as:
1. Input Devices (I/P)
2. Processing Devices (CPU)
3. Output Devices (O/P)

1. Input Devices: Input devices are used to enter the data into the computer system.
Example: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Camera…etc.
2. Output Devices: Output devices are used to take the information (output) from a computer system.
Example: Monitor (Display or Standard Output), Printer, Speakers…etc.
(If the output is shown on the monitor we call it as softcopy. If it is printed on a paper using the printer, we
call it as hardcopy)
3. Processing Unit (or) Central Processing Unit:
 The CPU is responsible for executing instructions such as arithmetic calculations, comparison between
data, and movement of data inside the system.
 The modern day computers can have one or more CPUs in it.
 The CPU, internal to it will have three different parts: ALU, CU and MU.
o ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit): ALU will performs the Arithmetic and Logical Operations
such as +,-,*,/ (Arithmetic Operations) &&, || ( Logical Operations) inside a computer system.
o CU (Control Unit): Every Operation such as storing, computing and retrieving the data should
be governed by the control unit.
o MU (Memory Unit): The Memory unit is used for storing the data. The Memory unit is
classified into two types. They are:
a) Primary Memory
b) Secondary Memory
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 a) Primary Memory (Main Memory): The primary memory also known as main memory is a
place where the programs and data are stored temporarily during processing. The data in primary
memory are erased when the computer is turned off. The following are the two memory types, which
are treated as primary memory.
ROM (Read Only Memory): It represents Read Only Memory that stores data and
instructions even when the computer is turned off. The contents in the ROM can‘t be
modified once if they are written. It is used to store the BIOS information which is helpful in
loading the operating system into the RAM from HDD.
RAM (Random Access Memory): It represents Random Access Memory that stores data
and instructions when the computer is turned on. The contents in the RAM can be modified
any number of times by instructions. It is used to store the programs under execution. The
content in the RAM are volatile, that is when the computer turned off the content of RAM
will be lost.
b) Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory): The following are the different kinds of secondary
memories. They can also be called as auxiliary memory. The content of these devices will remain
permanent even when the computer is turned off. The programs and data remain in the secondary
storage, ready for the next time use.
Magnetic Storage: The Magnetic Storage devices store information that can be read, erased
and rewritten a number of times. Example: Floppy Disks, Hard Disks, Magnetic Tapes.
Optical Storage: The optical storage devices that use laser beams to read and write stored
data. Example: CD (Compact Disk), DVD (Digital Versatile Disk).
There are other forms of memory devices like: Cache Memory and CPU Registers.
Cache Memory: These are superfast memory locations and are directly accessible by the CPU. The
content are volatile again. They are maintained in very small amounts as they are very costly.
CPU Registers: There are internal memory location of the CPU. The data inside the CPU is stored
in these registers for processing.

Software: Software is a virtual component of the computer.

 It is the collection of programs (instructions) that tells the hardware, how to do its job.
 The following figure shows the breakdown of computer software.

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 System Software:
 It manages the computer resources and provides interface between the hardware and user.
 System software does not serve the user needs directly.
 It is divided into three classes: (a) operating system, (b) system support and (c) system development.

(a) Operating System:

o It provides services like user interface, file and database access.
o Provides interface to communication systems like internet protocols.
o It keeps the system operating in an efficient manner.

(b) System Support Software:

o It provides system utilities and other operating services.
o System utilities include sorting programs and disk format programs.
o Other operating system services are performance statistics and security monitoring to
protect the system and data.

(c) System development Software:

o Includes the language translators to convert programs into machine language for
execution.
o Debugging tools to make sure the programs are error free.
o Computer assisted software engineering (CASE).

Application Software:

 It is directly responsible for solving the user problems.

 It is divided into two classes: (a) general-purpose software and (b) application specific software.

(a) General Purpose software:

o They can be used for more than one application.
o They are called as general purpose because they can be used to solve a variety of user
computing problems.
o Examples: Word processors, database management systems and computer aided design
systems.

(b) Application Specific Software:

o They can be used only for the task for which they are designed.
o They cannot be used for other general tasks.
o Examples: A general ledger system used by accountants and material management
system used by manufacturing organization.
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 Relationship between system and application software

 The following figure shows the relationship between the system software and application software.
 In this figure, each circle represents an interface point.
 The inner core is the computer hardware. The outer most layer represents the user.
 The user uses application software to work with the system. This application software interacts with
operating system, which is a part of system software layer.
 The system software have the direct interaction with the hardware.
 The opening at the bottom of the figure is the path followed by the user to interact directly with
operating system when necessary.

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
 To write a program for a computer the computer language is used.
 The computer languages have changed over the years from machine language to natural language.
 The following summary shows, how computer languages have evolved from machine language to
natural language.
 1940‘s -- Machine Languages
 1950‘s -- Symbolic Languages
 1960‘s -- High Level Languages

Machine Languages:
 In the early days of computers, the only available programming language was machine language.
 The problem with machine language is that, each computer will have its own machine language, which
made up of only 0’s and 1’s.
 The following program will give an idea of how instructions can be written in machine language.
 All instructions in machine language must be streams of 0’s and 1’s, because internal circuits of the
computer system are made of switches, transistors and other electronic devices.
 These devices can be in any one of the two possible states: on or off.
 The off state is represented by 0; the on state is represented by 1.
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Symbolic Languages
 In 1950s, Admiral Grace Hopper, a mathematician developed the concept of a special program that
convert programs into machine language.
 During these days, programming languages simply mirrored machine languages using symbols, or
mnemonics, to represent the machine language instructions.
 As these languages used special symbols, they were known as symbolic languages.
 The computer does not understand any other languages except its own machine language. Hence there is
a need to translate symbolic languages into machine language.
 A special program called an assembler is used, which translates symbolic languages into machine
languages.
 As symbolic languages are assembled using an assembler into machine languages, they also called as
assembly languages.

High-Level Languages
 Symbolic languages required the programmers to concentrate on the hardware of the computer that they
were using, as these languages are still dependent on the machine.
 Writing program in symbolic languages is very difficult because each instruction has to be coded separately.
 Because of these issues programmers thought that there is a requirement of sophisticated and efficient
programming technique.
 This led to the development of high-level programming languages.
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  High-Level languages are machine independent (portable). They allow the programmers to concentrate
more on application rather than the computer hardware.
 The programmers also free from remembering the symbols and mnemonics specific to the computer system.
 However like symbolic languages, these languages also be converted to machine language before giving it
to the computer.
 The process of converting high-level languages into machine languages is known as compilation.
 The most widely used high-level language was FORTRAN created by John Backus and IBM team in 1957,
it is still in use in scientific and engineering applications.
 COBOL was also another high-level language used, developed by Admiral Grace Hopper.
 C is also a high-level language used for the development of System software and other application
programs. It was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972.

CREATING AND RUNNING PROGRAMS

 Computer hardware will understand program instruction only if they are coded in machine language.
 Programs written in high-level languages like C needs to be converted into machine level language with the
help of a special program known as a compiler.
 The process of compiling and executing a C program is having different steps, as shown in the following
figure.
 Note that these steps are repeated many time during the development to correct errors and make
improvements in the program.
 It is the programmer’s job to write and edit the programs.
 Basically in this process there are four steps:
1. Writing and editing the program.
2. Compiling the programs.
3. Linking the program with required library modules.
4. Executing the program.

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 1. Writing and Editing Programs:
 Programmers use text-editors to write programs.
 A text editor helps to enter, change and store characters into programs. A text editor is a general
purpose application which can be used to write letters, create reports or to write programs.
 A more specific text editor can be used to write programs, which included with a compiler. Some of
other features of a text editor are search commands to locate and replace statements, copy and paste
commands to copy or move statements, and formatting commands like tabs to align statement.
 After writing the program the file will be saved to the disk. This will be known as source file and
this will be the input to the compiler.
2. Compiling programs:
o The source file code stored on the disk must be translated into machine language before giving it to
the computer (executing). This is the job of a compiler.
o The C compiler will have two separate programs: (a) the pre-processor and (b) the translator.
(a) Pre-processor:
 It reads the source code line by line and prepares it for translator.
 In the program it scans for special instructions known as pre-processor commands.
 These commands tells the pre-processor to look for special code libraries, make
substitutions in the code.
 The result of the pre-processing is called the translation unit.
(b) Translator:
 The translator actually converts the high-level language code into machine language.
 It reads the translation unit prepared by the pre-processor line by line and write the
resulting object module (machine language instructions) to a separate file.
 These object module is then combined with other precompiled units (hardware related
information) to form the final module in machine language.
 Here even as the final module program is in machine language, it is not ready for
execution. It has to go through two more steps.
3. Linking Programs:
 A C program is made of many functions. Some of them are written by the programmer (known as
user-defined functions) and they are part of the program.

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  But some functions known as pre-defined functions (such as input/output functions and
mathematical library functions) the code will exists in library files and must be attached to the
program before execution.
 This is exactly the job of a linker program. The linker assembles all of these functions both pre-
defined and user-defined into the final executable program.

4. Executing programs:
 Once the program has been linked it is ready for execution.
 To execute a program the program has to be loaded into primary memory. The operating system
command ‘run’ can be used to achieve this job.
 Getting the program into the main memory is the function of an operating system program known as
loader. It locates the executable program in secondary memory and loads it to main memory.
 After loading everything into the memory, the program takes the control and starts the execution.
 In today’s integrated development environments (IDEs) these steps are combined under simple
mouse clicks or pull-down menu bars or simple shortcut key combinations.
 In typical program execution, the program takes input either from the user or from a file. After
processing the data, it prepares the output either to the user’s monitor or to a file.
 Once the execution process finishes the operating system removes the program from main memory.

COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
 In the early days of computing the only environment available was the mainframe computing environment,
where the mainframe computer is used to satisfy all operations given to it. No sharing of resources from
other computers.
 Later with the advancement of minicomputers and personal computers, many computing environment came
into existence. These computing environments are:
1. Personal Computing Environment
2. Time-Sharing Environment
3. Client-Server Environment
4. Distributed Computing Environment
Personal Computing Environment:
 In 1971, Marcian E. Hoff of Intel has combined all basic elements of the central processing unit onto a
single chip known as microprocessor.
 This was the first computer on a single chip named Intel 4004. It was the grandfather to many of today’s
modern computing processors.
 In personal computing environments, a personal computer (PC) will be used where all of the computer
hardware components are connected together inside a single computer.
 This environment will have the whole computer of its own. The user can perform whichever operation he
want.
 Atypical personal computer is shown in the following.

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Time-Sharing Environment:
 In time-sharing environment many users are connected to one or more minicomputers or central
mainframes.
 They use terminals which are non-programmable computers. Terminals are dumb devices.
 In the time-sharing environment, the output devices (such as printers) and auxiliary storage devices (such as
disks) are shared by all of the users.
 Computer labs in colleges and universities are best examples of time sharing environment.
 In time-sharing environment the central computer is responsible for the following duties:
o It must control the shared resources.
o It must manage the shared data and printing.
o It must do the computing.
 Generally in time sharing environments if the terminal count increases, sometimes the central computer will
become so busy, that the users will get frustrated because of the slow response of the computer.
 The following figure shows a general time sharing environment.

Client / Server Environment:

 In this environment the computing splits between a central computer and users’ computer.
 The users basically use personal computers or workstations so that some of the computing responsibility can
be moved to the personal computers.
 In the client / server environment, the users’ micro computers are known as clients. The central computer is
known as a server.
 The server may be a powerful microcomputer, minicomputer or a central mainframe.
 Because the work is now shared the response time is faster, and the users will be more productive.
 A typical client/server environment is shown in the following figure:

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Distributed Computing:
 The distributed computing environment provides a seamless integration of computing functions between
different servers and clients.
 The Internet is responsible for providing this integration.
 For example: Google server uses several computers as servers to provide its services.
 This environment provides a reliable, scalable and highly available network.
 The following figure shows a distributed computing system.

ALGORITHM:
 An algorithm is a step by step process to solve any given computational problem.
 That is an Algorithm refers to a set of rules/instructions that step-by-step define how a work is to be done to
get the expected results.
 The Algorithm is language-independent, i.e. the plain instructions in an algorithm can be written in any
language to get the expected output.
Characteristics / Specifications of Algorithms:
Not all written instructions can be considered as an algorithm. In order to consider the written statements as an
algorithm it must have the following characteristics.

 Input: An algorithm has zero or more inputs, taken from a specified set of objects.
 Output: An algorithm has one or more outputs, which have a specified relation to the inputs.
 Definiteness: Each step must be precisely defined; each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
 Finiteness: The algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps.
 Effectiveness: An algorithm must be basic and simple. And it has to give the expected solution to the
problem in a finite number of steps.
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 Example: To cook a new recipe, one reads the instructions/steps and execute them one by one, in the given
sequence. The result can be obtained as a new dish cooked perfectly. Similarly, algorithms help to do a task in
programming to get the expected output.

How to write an algorithm:

 While writing algorithm any intelligible statements can be used, as long as it is understandable by the
concerned parties.
 No need to follow any programming language syntax or notations specifically in the algorithms. There is no
fixed syntax for writing the algorithms.
 Any language can be used to write the algorithms with optional mathematical notations. Ex: English with
mathematical notations.
 An algorithm can be designed to get a solution of a given problem.
 A problem can be solved in more than one ways. Hence, many solution algorithms can be derived for a
single problem.
 Any person with domain knowledge can write the algorithm. As there is need to describe the steps in natural
language.
Example-1:
Problem − Design an algorithm to add, subtract, multiply, divide and to find the reminder of two
numbers and display the result.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare num1, num2 & sum.
Step 3: input num1 and num2.
Step 4: sum=num1+num2
Step 5: print sum
Step 6: Stop

Example 2:
Problem − Design an algorithm to Calculate the Interest of a Bank Deposit.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: declare amount, year, rate and interest.
Step 3: input amount, year, and rate.
Step 4: interest=Amount*Years*Rate/100.
Step 5: print interest.
Step 6: Stop.

Example-3:
Problem − Design an algorithm to determine whether the Temperature is below or above the
freezing Point (32◦F).
Step 1: Start
Step 2: declare temperature.
Step 3: input temperature.
Step 4: if temperature < 32
print “below freezing point”
else
print “above freezing point”
Step 5: Stop

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 Example-4:
Problem − Design an algorithm to find the biggest in two numbers.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare num1 and num2.
Step 3: Read num1 and num2.
Step 4:if num1 < num2
print “num1 is big”
else
print “num2 is big”
Step 5: Stop

Example-5:
Problem − Design an algorithm to determine whether a student passed in the exam or not.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare m1, m2, m3, m4, m5, m6 and avg.
Step 3: Read m1, m2, m5, m4, m5 and m6.
Step 4: avg=(m1+m2+m3+m4+m5+m6)/6"
Step 4: if avg < 60
print “FAIL”
else
print “PASS”
Step 5: Stop

Example-6:
Problem − Design an algorithm to find the given number is even or odd.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare num, rem.
Step 3: Read num.
Step 5: if num%2==0
print “num is EVEN”
else
print “num is ODD”
Step 6: Stop
PSEUDO CODE:
 Pseudocode is an informal way of programming description that does not require any strict programming
language syntax.
 Pseudocode is a methodology that allows the programmer to represent the implementation of an algorithm.
 Pseudo codes are used to represent algorithms so that they can be interpreted by programmers irrespective to
their programming background or knowledge.
 Pseudo code (as the name suggest, is a false code) is also programming language independent.
 Pseudo code has no syntax like any of the programming language, it can’t be compiled or interpreted by the
computer.
Advantages of pseudocode –
• Pseudocode can be understandable by the programmers of all programming languages.
• Pseudocode acts as a bridge between the program and the algorithm or flowchart.

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 • Pseudocode works as a rough documentation, so the program of one developer can be understood easily
when a pseudo code is written out. In industries, the approach of documentation is essential. And that’s
where a pseudo-code plays a vital role.
• The main goal of a pseudo code is to explain what exactly each line of a program should do, hence making
the code construction phase easier for the programmer.

Example:
C code: Pseudocode:
If(i<10) if i is less than 10
{ increment i value by 1
i++;
}

Example-1:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to add, subtract, multiply, divide and to find the reminder of two
numbers and display the result.
This program will allow the user to add two numbers.
Declare variables num1, num2 and sum.
Read values for num1 and num2.
Add num1 and num2 and assign the result to sum.
sum←num1+num2
print the value of sum on the output screen

Example 2:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to Calculate the Interest of a Bank Deposit.
This program will allow the user the user to calculate the interest for a bank deposit.
Declare variables amount, year, rate and interest.
Read values for amount, year, and rate.
Calculate the interest with formula "interest=Amount*Years*Rate/100.
print the value of interest on the output screen.

Example-3:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to determine whether the Temperature is below or above the freezing
Point (32◦F).
This program will allow the user to determine whether the temperature is below or above the freezing
point.
Declare variable temperature.
Read value for temperature.
if temperature value is lesser than 32, print a message “temperature is below freezing point”.
Otherwise print a message “temperature is above freezing point”.

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 Example-4:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to find the biggest in two numbers.
This program will allow the user to find the biggest in two numbers.
Declare variables num1 and num2.
Read values for num1 and num2.
if num1 value is greater than num2 value, print a message num1 is big.
else print a message num2 is big.

Example-5:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to determine whether a student passed in the exam or not.
This program will allow the user to determine whether a student passed in the exam or not by considering
6 – different course marks.
Declare variables for courses M1, M2, M5, M4, M5, M6 and grade.
Read values for M1, M2, M5, M4, M5 and M6.
Calculate the average grade with formula "Grade=(M1+M2+M3+M4+M5+M6)/6"
if grade value is greater than 60, print a message PASS.
else print a message FAIL.

Example-6:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to find the given number is even or odd.
This program will allow the user to find the given number is even or odd.
Declare variable num, reminder.
Read value for num.
Calculate the reminder by using a formula reminder=num%2.
if reminder is equal to zero, print a message num is EVEN.
else print a message num is ODD

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FLOWCHARTING:
 Flowchart is a program design tool in which standard graphical symbols are used to represent the logical
flow of data through a function.
 A flowchart is used to show the logic flow of a program. It is a pictorial representation of an algorithm.
 The primary purpose of a flowchart is to show the design of an algorithm. Graphical symbols are used to
show the design.
 Flowchart can be used to design either the complete program or the part of the program, such parts can be
called as functions in c language.
 When using flowcharts programmers are free from programming language syntax, so they can focus more
on problem to be solved.
 To design a flowchart the following symbols can be used:
1. Auxiliary Symbols
2. Primary Symbols

1. Auxiliary Symbols:
 These symbols enhance the readability or functionality of the flowchart. They do not show any
instructions or commands.
 These symbols are shown in the following figure: (a) Terminal (b) Flow Lines and (c) Connectors

(a) Terminal:
 The Oval symbol is used as a terminal.
 It is used to show the beginning and ending of an algorithm.
 To show the beginning the START is used inside the oval, and to show the ending the
word STOP or RETURN is used inside the oval.
 The basic rule of structured programming is every algorithm should have only one
entry point (START terminal) and one exit point (STOP/RETURN terminal).
(b) Flow Lines:
 Flow lines are used to connect different symbols of a flowchart. They also shows the
order or sequence of the symbols.
 Every symbol in a flowchart will have some entering and some exiting lines.
 For example the START oval will have only one exiting line and the STOP oval will
have only one entering line.
(c) Connectors: A connector symbol, a circle with a number in it is used in two situations.
i. When the end of the page is reached but the flowchart is finished: Here a
connector is used at the bottom of the page to show that the flow continues at the
top of the next page. Refer the following figure (a).

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 ii. If the logic details do not fit into the main flowchart: Two sets of connectors are
used to handle this situation. The first set connects the entry point of the separated
flowchart, and the second set connects the end point. Refer the following figure
(b).

2. Primary Symbol:
 The primary symbols are used to show the instructions or actions needed to solve the problem.
 These category of symbols used to show: (a) Sequence (b) Decision / Condition (Selection
Statements) and (c) Repetition (Looping Statement).
(a) Sequence
 Sequence symbols are used to represent actions that must be performed in a linear order.
 To this symbols the flow must enter at the top of the symbol, and flow exit at the bottom of the
symbol.
 They do not allow any flow change.
 There are four different types of sequence symbols:
i. Null statement
ii. Assignment statement
iii. Input / Output statement
iv. Module call statement
v. Compound statement
I. Null statement:
o A null statement is a sequence statement, as it cannot change the flow direction.
o There is no symbol defined to represent a null statement. It is simply a flow line.

II. Assignment statement:

o A rectangle symbol is used for assignment statements.
o This symbol is used whenever there is an assignment operation needs to be shown inside the
flowchart.
o Assignment operator is shown using a left-pointing arrow. Right side to the arrow expression and
left side the variable will be shown.

III. Input / Output Statement:

o A parallelogram symbol is used for input / output statements.
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 o Reading input from the keyboard and writing output on the output screen (console) can be
represented using input / output statements.

IV. Module-Call Statement:

o A rectangle with two vertical bars inside is used for module call.
o Every time when there is a module call in the flowchart, there must be another flowchart with
same module name.
o In separated flowchart the start oval contains the name of the module, and the last oval contains
the RETURN. It indicates that the separated flowchart is not the end of the program.

V. Compound Statement:
o A broken-line rectangle is used for compound statement.
o All statements that makes the compound statement are encapsulated inside a broken-line
rectangle.
o In C-Programming a compound statement represents a block of code, which is enclosed in curly
brackets.

(b) Selection Statements:

o Unlike the sequence statements, conditional statements can cause the flow of the program to change.
o They allow the execution of selected statements and skipping of other statements.
o There are two types of selection statements:
i. Two-way selection statements.
ii. Multi-way selection statements.
I. Two-way selection statements:
o The diamond symbol is used as a two-way selection symbol.

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 o Generally this symbol is used to represent if-else statement in any programming language. The
true condition logic is shown right side of the diamond, and false condition logic is shown left
side. If any of the logic doesn’t exist, then a null statement can be used.
o The separated logic will join at a single point with the help of a connector.
o In each branch only one statement is allowed, if there are more than one statement a compound
statement will be used.

Example: The following algorithm reads an integer. If the integer’s value is greater than 10, subtract
10 and writes the result. It the value is lesser than 10, it does nothing.

II. Multiway Selection Statement:

o In C programming the multiway selection statement is a Switch statement.
o If a language does not support switch statement the same can be implemented using if-else
statement or else-if ladder.
o A multiway statement can have as many braches as needed. In each branch one and only one
statement is allowed. If multiple statements are there a compound statement can be used.

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 Example: Design a flowchart for a program that reads one character representing a letter grade and
prints the corresponding grade point average (GPA).

(c) Looping Statements:

C has three looping statement:
i. for loop
ii. while loop
iii. do – while loop
I. for loop:
o for loop is a counter controlled loop.
o It has a complex statement which has 3-parts. Any of which can be null.
(1) Loop initialization - which normally sets the counter for the loop.
(2) Test condition – which is used to test the condition
(3) Update – which increments or decrements the counter value.
o As for loop is a pre-test loop, the test condition will be checked before the body of the for
loop gets executed.
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 o The body of the for loop must contain one and only one statement, if more statements are to
be represented, use a compound statement.

o Although there are three statements in a for loop, but only two actions are performed in each
iteration.
o In the first iteration only initialization and condition are used. In rest of all iterations only
update and condition will be used.

Example: Design a flowchart to read 20 numbers and print the sum. Since the number of times is
known in advance, for loop is an excellent choice.

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 II. while loop:
o While loop is a conditional loop and not a counter controlled loop.
o It is also a pretest loop. If the condition becomes false in first iteration the body of the loop
may never be executed.

Example: Design a flowchart that reads numbers from the keyboard and print their total. As the
number of times is not known in advance a conditional loop is the best choice. To break the loop, or
to limit the number of times a negative input -1 can be read from the keyboard.

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 III. do – while loop statement:
o The third type of looping statement is do – while loop.
o There are two major differences between while loop and do – while loop
1. A while loop is a pre-test loop, but a do – while loop is a posttest loop.
2. If the test condition fails in the first iteration, the body of a while loop may never
be executed, but the body of a do – while loop is executed at least once.
o The following figure shows the use of the do – while statement, it can be observed that
the condition is tested at the end of the loop.

Example-1:
Problem – Draw a flowchart to add, subtract, multiply, divide and to find the reminder of two numbers
and display the result.

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 Example 2:
Problem − Draw a flowchart to Calculate the Interest of a Bank Deposit.

Example-3:
Problem − Draw a flowchart to determine whether the Temperature is below or above the freezing Point
(32◦F).

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 Example-4:
Problem − Draw a flowchart to find the biggest in two numbers.

Example-5:
Problem – Draw a flowchart to determine whether a student passed in the exam or not.

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 Example-6:
Problem − Design a pseudocode to find the given number is even or odd.

INTRODUCTION TO THE C-LANGUAGE (OR) HISTORY OF C-LANGUAGE

o C – Language is a structured, high-level programming language.
o It is considered as high-level language because it allows the programmer to concentrate on the problem in
hand and not to worry about machine hardware.
o C – Language is a machine independent language. This is the reason why many software developers use c-
language whose applications needs to run on many different computers.
o C – Language is derived from ALGOL (the first language to use block structure).
o ALGOL was introduced in the early 1960s make the way to the development of structured programming
concepts.
o Two computer scientist Corrado Bohm and Guiseppe Jacopini published a paper in 1966, which defines the
concept of structured programming.
o Another computer scientist, Edsger Dijkstra wrote a letter to the editors of the communications of the ACM
(Association of Computing Machinery) popularized the concepts of structured programming and brought
the attention of computer science community.
o In 1967, Martin Richards developed a language called Basic Combined Programming language or BCPL.
o Later Ken Thompson in the year 1970 developed a similar language named it as B. B was used to develop
the first version of UNIX (one of the popular network operating system in use today).
o Finally, in 1972, Dennis Ritchie developed C, by combining many concepts from ALGOL, BCPL and B and
added the concept of data types. This version of C is known as traditional C, as popularized by a book by
Brain W. Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie in the year 1978.

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 o In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has given a standard definition for C, it got
approved in December 1989. In 1990 the International Standards Organization (ISO) adopted the ANSI
standard. This version of C is known as C89.
o In 1995 minor changes were made to the standard. This version is known as C95.
o In 1999 a significant changes were made to the standard. This version is referred as C99. The following
changes were made to it.
1. Extension to character type to support non English characters.
2. A Boolean type.
3. Extension to the integer type.
4. Inclusion of type definition in the for statement.
5. Addition of imaginary and complex types.
6. Inclusion of line comment (//).
STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM:
Every C program is made of (a) one or more pre-processor commands, (b) a global declaration section and (c) one
or more functions.
(a) Pre-processor commands:
o The pre-processor commands come at the beginning of the program. It tell the processor how to
prepare the program for compilation.
o All pre-processor commands start with a pound sign (#); this is just the rule of C known as syntax.
o The pre-processor command tells the compiler to include the library files into the programs. Library
files like stdio.h (Standard input / output header files) and conio.h (console input / output header
files).
o Generally library files contains definitions for pre-defined functions like printf();. Printing is one of
the input / output processes identified in stdio.h library file.
o The syntax for including a pre-processor command into the program is: #include<stdio.h>.
o There should not be any space between the pound symbol (#) and the include keyword.
o The keyword include tells the compiler to include the header file specified in angular bracket (<>)
into the program.

(b) Global Declaration Section:

o The global declaration section comes after the pre-processor commands.
o It is the place where global variable are declared.
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 o The basic idea about global declarations (global variables) is that they are visible to all parts of the
program.

(c) Main function section:

o The work in a program will be carried out by functions.
o Functions are block of code separated to accomplish a specific task.
o One and only one function must be a main function. The main function is the starting point of the
program. The program execution will begin from main function.
o Every function in a C-Program is divided into two parts:
i. Declaration section: It declares the data that will be used inside the function. Declarations
inside a function are known as local declarations, they are visible only to the function where
they are declared.
ii. Statement section: It contains the actual logic or instructions to the computer that makes it to
do something. In C these instructions are known as statements, hence the name statement
section.
o Syntax to use main function is: int main(void)
o Here int says that the function main will return integer value to the operating system. And void
indicates that it has no parameters.

COMMENTS
 Comments are helpful in documenting the code.
 Comments improves the readability and understanding of the code.
 Comments are placed within the program, with actual programming code.
 The compiler ignores these comments when it translates the program into executable code.
 In C there are two different types of comments:
a. Block Comments
b. Line Comments
(a). Block Comments:
 A block comment is used when he comment will span several lines.
 A block comment uses an opening token ‘/*’ and a closing token ‘*/’, between opening and closing token
the comment which span more than one line is used.
 No space is allowed between the token symbols, that is ‘/’ and ‘*’ should come together like ‘/*’ for
opening comment and ‘*/’ for closing comment.
Example:
/* This is a block comment
Which spans
More than one line */

(b) Line Comment:

 The line comment uses two slashes (//) to identify the start of the comment.
 Line comment does not require an end-of-comment token. The end of the line automatically ends this
comment.

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  Only one line of comment is accepted inside a line comment. When the comment size is very short line
comments will be used.
Example:
// This is a single line comment
int a=10; //This is a partial line comment

Nesting of comment: Comments can be nested, one within another. Doing so does not give any specific meaning
but one has to know what happens if we nest the comments. In nesting of comments we have the following
possibilities.
(i) Nesting line comment within a line comment
(ii) Nesting line comment within a block comment
(iii) Nesting block comment within a line comment
(iv) Nesting block comment within a block comment

(i) Nesting line comment within a line comment: Nesting a line comment within a line comment does not raise
any error. The start token of the nested line comment will be ignored by the compiler. Hence will not generate
any error condition.

(ii) Nesting Line comment within a block comment: Nesting a line comment within a block comment will also
not generate any error. The start token of the nested line comment will be ignored by the compiler as part of
the comment. Hence will not generate any error condition.

(iii)Nesting of block comment within a line comment: Nesting of a block comment within a line comment will
generate error, only if the block comment will span more than one line.

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 (iv) Nesting of block comment within a block comment: Nesting of a block comment within a block comment
will always generate error. Because the start token of the nested block comment will be ignored as part of the
comment. And closing token of nested block comment will become the closing token of outer block comment.
Rest of the comment will generate error.

IDENTIFIERS:
 Identifiers are used to name data and other objects in the program. It is similar to nouns in natural
languages.
 When objects are declared in computer program they will be stored at unique memory locations, these
memory locations will have unique addresses to represent them. If we don’t have symbolic names to these
memory locations, then there is need to know and use these addresses to access the memory locations.
 Instead of doing the above, we simply give symbolic names (identifiers) to these memory locations, and the
compiler will keep track of where they are stored.
 There are some rules while framing the identifier:
1. First character must be an alphabetic character or underscore.
2. Must consisits only of alphabetic characters, digits, or underscores.
3. First 63 characters of an identifier are significant.
4. Cannot be a keyword.

 The forst character of the identifier cannot be underscore, because many objects in library files use
underscore as the first letter in their identifiers. If we do the same we may get duplicate names, which
becomes very confusing for the compiler.
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  C-language is a case sensitive language, that is uppercase and lowercase letters are differently treatted by
the compiler.
 No space is allowed withing the identifier. Underscore and Capitalization can be used to separate the words.

KEYWORDS:
 Keywords are also known as reserved words. They are syntactical tokens which have special meaning when
used in programming.
 Keywords cannot be used as identifiers for variables, functions or named constants in programming.
 In C-language there are 37 – keywords, they are listed in the following table:
auto extern short _Bool float signed
break for sizeof case goto static
char if struct _Complex _Imaginary switch
const inline typedef continue int union
default long unsigned do register void
double restrict volatile else return while
enum

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DATATYPES (OR) TYPES:
 A type is defined as a set of values and a set of operations that can be applied on those values.
 A type not only defines the type of data to be stored but also the size of the storage location.
 Example: A light switch – it has two values on and off, and only two possible operations turn on and turn
off.
 In C-language the types are divided into four major catogories: void, integral, floating-point and derived.

 The first three types are known as primitive types (or basic types) which are independently defined.
 The last type is derived type which are derived from basic types.

1. Void Type:
o The keyword void is used to indicate void type.
o The void type has no values and no operations.
o The void type is used to specify that a function has either no parameters or no return values.
o Example: int main(void); - in this statement the function has no parameters.
o The void type is also used to define a pointer to generic type.
o Example: void* ptr; - in this statement ptr becomes a pointer to the generic type of data.

2. Integral type:
o In C-language there are three integral types namely: Boolean, character and integer.
o Integral types doesn’t hold fractional part they are whole numers.

(a) Boolean:
 In C-language Boolean type is included in C99. It is named after the French mathamaticain and
phylosopher George Boole.
 A boolean will have only two values: true and false.
 Before C99 integers were used to represent the boolean values; a nonzero number (positive or
negetive) is used to represent true, and a zero is used to represent false.
 The keyword bool is used refer boolean type.
 A boolean type is stored in memory as 0 (false) or 1 (true).

(b) Character:
 In computers a character is any value that can be represented in computer’s alphabet (character set).
 In C-standard there are two character types: char and wchar_t.
 Many computers will use 1-byte to store the char data types. A byte is 8-bits. With 8 bits, there are
256 different possible char values.
 In English the letter a is different from x in its visual formation of the graphical associated with the
letter. But in computers the letter a is binary 0110 0001 and letter x is binary 0111 1000. The
decimal values of these two letters 97 for a and 120 for x.
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  In C99 standard To support non-English languages or languges that don’t use the Roman alphabet
wide charater type (wchar_t) is used.

char

wchar_t

(c) Integer:
 An integer type is a number without a fraction part.
 C supports four different sizes of integer data types: short int, int, long int and long long int.
 A short int also referred as short, long int as long and long long int as long long.
 These data types are organized from the smallest to the largest as shown in the following figure.
 To know the size of any data type, C provides the sizeof operator, that gives the exact size in bytes.
sizeof(short) < sizeof(int) < sizeof(long) < sizeof(long long)

short int

int

long

long long

Signed and Unsigned integers:

 Integers can be signed or unsigned. If an integer is signed then one bit must be used for a sign (0 is plus, 1 is
minus).
 If an inteer is unsigned it can store a positive number that is twice as large as the signed integer.
 The follwing table list typical range of values for different types of integers.
Type Byte Size Minimum Value Maximum Value
short int 2 -32,768 32,767
int 4 -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647
long int 4 -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647
long long int 8 -9,223,372,036,854,775,807 9,223,372,036,854,775,806

3. Floating-Point Types:
 In C, there are three floating-point types: real, imaginary and complex.
 Floating point types are always signed and there is no possibility for unsigned.

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 (a) Real:
 Real type holds values that consists of an integral and a fractional part. Ex: 49.32
 There are three different sizes of real types namely: float, double and long double.
 Real types are also organized from smaller size to larger size, the relationship is shown in the
following figure.

float

double

long double

sizeof(float) < sizeof(double) < sizeof(long double)

(b) Imaginary Type:

 An imaginary number is a real number multiplied by the sqare root of -1 (√-1).
 C defines an imaginary type to support imaginary numbers in programming.
 There are three different types of imaginary types: float imaginary, double imaginary, long double
imaginary.
 Many C implementations do not support imaginary types yet, and the functions to support imaginary
types are not part of this standard either.

(c) Complex Type:

 A complex number is a combination of a real number and an imaginary number.
 C defines complex type to support complex numbers in programming.
 There are three diffent types of complex types: float complex, double complex and long double
complex.

Type summary: The following type summmerizes the standard data type.

Category Type C Implemeentation

Void Void void
Integral Boolean bool
Character char, wchar_t
Integer short int, int, long int, long long int
Floating-point Real float, double, long double
Imaginary float imaginary, double imaginary, long double imaginary
Complex float complex, double complex, long double complex

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VARIABLES
 Variables are named memory locations that have a type, such as integer or character.
 The type here determines the values that a variable may hold, and operations that can be applied on the
variable.
 Like every other object in C, a variable must be declared, defined and initialized before it can be used any
where in the programming.
 Declaration: In C, declaration means giving name to an object. Naming an object will be done with the help
of identifier.
 Definition: Definitions are used to create the object. The definition will allocate the memory to the object.
 Initialization: Initialization assigns a specific value to the defined object. Without initialization the variable
will hold the garbage value.
 In C, variable declaration and definition will be done at the same time. And initialization can be done
according to the requirement.

Variable declaration and definition:

 In C, variable declaration and definition will be done at the same time.
 Variable declarations are used to name the variables, naming the variable is nothing but giving an identifier
to it.
 Variable definitions are used to allocate the memory to the variable, memory allocation is nothing but
specifying the datatype to the variable.
 In simple terms, the declaration give variables a symbolic name, and definition reserves memory.
 Where the variables are located inside memory is not a programmer’s concern, it is a concern of the
compiler. The programmer uses the symbolic name (identifier) associated with variable to access the
content from it.

 A variable’s type can be any datatype, such as character, integral or real, but cannot be a void type.
 To create a variable, first specify the type (datatype) and then the name (identifier).

Variable Creation:
Syntax:
float price;

 C-allows multiple variables of same type to be defined at the same time in a single statement. It is
considered as poor programming style
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 Multiple Variable Creation in Single Statement:
Syntax:
float balance, price;

Variable Initialization:
 The variables can be initialized at the same time when they are defined. That is in a single statement it is
possible to do variable declaration, definition and initialization.
 To initialize a variable when it is defined, the identifier has to be followed by an assignment operator (=),
and the initilizer value.
Variable declaration, definition and initialization in single
statement:
Syntax:
float price = 3.759;

 In multiple variable definitions when initializer is used with only one variable, the initialization will be
applied to that variable only, but not to all.
Multiple variable declaration, definition and initialization in
single statement:
Syntax:
float balance, price = 3.759;

 To avoid the above confusion the variables has to be defined in separate lines.

Multiple variable declaration, definition and initialization in

seperate statement:
Syntax:
float balance = 100.324;
float price = 3.759;
 If not initialized properly or if initialization is not done at all, the variables will hold the garbage value
(Meaningless values left over from a previous use).

CONSTANTS:
 Constants are data values that cannot be changed during program execution.
 Like variables, constatns will also have type.
 In C there are different types of constants like: Boolean, character, integer, real, complex and string.
Constant Representation:
Boolean Constatnts:
 A boolean data type can take only two values. The values are 1(true) and 0(false).
 That is, there are only two possible symbols to represent a boolean data type: 1(true) and 0(false).
 To use boolean type, requires the inclusion of standard boolean library file into the program stdbool.h.

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 Character Constants:
 Character constants are enclosed between two single quotes (apostrophes).
 There are characters which do not have any graphical symbol associated with them. They cannot be printed
directly on the output screen, or they don’t have any direct character on the keyboard.
 To represent such characters a backslash(\) is used before the character. This backslash is called as escape
characters.
 For example: A new line character don’t have any symbol associated with it on the keyboard. So character
‘\n’ is used to represent a new line character.
ASCII Character Symbolic Representation
Null character ‘\0’
Alert (bell) ‘\a’
Backspace ‘\b’
Horizontal tab ‘\t’
Vertical tab ‘\v’
New line ‘\n’
Single quotes ‘\’’
Double quotes ‘\”’
Backslash ‘\\’

Integer Constants:
 Integer constants are simply coded as they are in real time. The value 15 is simply coded as 15.
 By default all integer constants are signed inegers.
 To override this default, that is to make the integer constant of different size: for Unsigned (u or U), for long
(l or L), for long long (ll or LL) can be used after the number.
 These codes can be combined to get the required meaning.
 There is no way to specify a short integer.
 If no code is suffixed by default the type will be int.
Examples of Integer Constants
Representation Value Type
+123 123 int
-378 -378 int
-32,228L -32,228 long int
76542LU 76,542 unsigned long int
12789845LL 12,789,845 long long int

Real Constants:
 Real constants will have integer part and fractional part seperated by a dot (.). Ex: 37.273
 By default all real constants will be in double.
 To override this default size: for float (f ot F) and for long double (l or L) can be used as suffix with the
value.

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 Examples of Real Constants
Representation Value Type
0. 0 double
.0 0 double
2.0 2.0 double
3.1416 3.1416 double
-2.0f -2.0 float
3,1415926536L 3,1415926536 long double

Complex Constants:
 Complex constants are widely used in engineering and mathamatical applications.
 Complex constants are coded as two parts, the real part and the imaginary part, seperated by a plus sign.
 The real part is coded using the real part rules. The imaginary part is coded as real number multipled(*) with
imaginary constant i(√-1).
 As with real constant, by default complex constant is double.
 To override this for float (f or F) and for long double (l or L) can be used.
Examples of Complex Constants
Representation Value Type
12.3+14.4*i 12.3+14.4*(√-1) double complex
14F+16F*i 14F+16F*(√-1) float complex
1.4736L+4.56756L*i 1.4736L+4.56756L*(√-1) long double complex

String Constants:
 A string constant is a sequence of zero or more characters enclosed in double quotes.
“” //An empty String
“h”
“Hello world\n”
“How are your”
“Good Morning!”

 The difference between null character and an empty string is that:

i. The null character represents no value, but as a character it is 8 zero bits (when stored consumes
8-bits in computer memory.
ii. The Empty string on the other hand is a string containing nothing. Neither it stores any character
not it consumes any memory in computer.
‘\0’ Null character

“” Empty String

Coding Constants:

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 In C, there are three different ways in which the constants can be coded in a program: (a) literal constants,
(b) defined constants and (c) memory constants.

(a) Literal constants:

 A literal is an unnamed constant used to specify data.
 If the is known in advance and cannot be changed during the execution, then a leteral for that data can
be used instead using a variable.
 Literals are coded using the format rules for constants.
 For example:
The literal 5 is used in the following statement:
a = b + 5;

(b) Defined Constants:

 Another way to define a constant is to use the preprocessor command define.
 Like all preprocessor commands, define should be prefixed with a pound symbol (#).
 The define command is placed in the beginning of the program.
 For example:
#define INTEREST_RATE 0.5
#define PI 3.141592

(c) Memory Constants:

 The third way to use a constant is memory constant.
 Memory constants use a C-type qulifier, const, to indicate that the data in the identifier cannot be
changed.

General Syntax:
const type identifier = value;
 Defining memory constants is similar to defining variable, prefixing const will make the content to be
fixed in the memory location, and cannot be changed.
 The memory constants must be initialized where they are defined, otherwise they permanently hold a
garbage value.
 For example:
const float PI = 3.141592;
const INTEREST_RATE 0.5

SYNTAX AND LOGICAL ERRORS:

(a) Syntax
 All languages have a set of rules for how words and sentences should be structured.
 These rules are collectively known as the language syntax.
 In computer programming, syntax serves the same purpose, defining how declarations, functions,
commands, and other statements should be arranged.

(b) Syntax errors

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  A syntax error is an error in the source code of a program. Since computer programs must follow strict
syntax to compile correctly, any aspects of the code that do not conform to the syntax of the programming
language will produce a syntax error.
 Syntax errors are small grammatical mistakes, sometimes limited to a single character.
 For example:
i. Missing out quotes.
ii. Missing out brackets.
iii. Using upper case characters in key words e.g. IF instead of if.
iv. Missing out a semicolon at end of a statement.
v. Using tokens in the wrong order.

(c) Logic errors

 A logic error (or logical error) is a mistake in a program’s source code that results in incorrect or unexpected
behaviour.
 It is a type of runtime error that may simply produce the wrong output or may cause a program to crash
while running.
 Many different types of programming mistakes can cause logic errors.
 For example:
i. Assigning a value to the wrong variable may cause a series of unexpected program errors.
ii. Multiplying two numbers instead of adding them together may also produce unwanted results.
iii. Calculating average = test1 + test 2 + test3 / 3, it Should be (test1 + test2 + test3)/3

Difference between Syntax Error and Logical Error

Syntax Error vs Logical Error
A syntax error is an error in the syntax of a sequence of A logical error is an error in a program that
characters or tokens that is intended to be written in a causes it to operate incorrectly or terminate
particular programming language. abnormally.
Occurrence
A logical error occurs due to a fault in the
A syntax error occurs due to fault in the program syntax.
algorithm.
Detection
In compiled languages, the compiler indicates the syntax The programmer has to detect the error by
error with the location and what the error is. himself.
Simplicity
It is easier to identify a syntax error. It is difficult to identify a logical error.

OBJECT CODE AND EXECUTABLE CODE

The Programming Process:
 Computers do not understand human languages. They only understand sequences of numbers that
represented in machine language.
 On the other hand, it is be very difficult for humans to write programs in machine language.
 Therefore, programming languages were invented to make it easier for humans to write computer programs.

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  The program (source code) must be translated into machine language so that the computer can execute the
program (as the computer only understands machine language).
 The way that this translation occurs depends on the translator programs.
 In case of high level programming languages a special program called compiler is used to translate the
program into machine language.
 C is also known as a compiled programming language because it uses a compiler to translate the instructions
into machine language.
 A compiler takes the program code (source code) and converts it into a machine language module (called an
object file).
 Another specialized program, called a linker, combines this object file with other previously compiled
object files (in particular run-time modules also known as library modules) to create an executable file.
 The object code, eventhough it is in machine language, it is not ready for execution because it doesn’t have
the integration of library files. This integration has to be done with the help of linker program.
 The executable code is in machine language and it is ready for execution, it can be executed in any
computer to get the desired output.

MD AFZAL Mob: 8179700193

Asst. Professor [email protected]