Chapter 3: Skin and Body Membranes

Body membranes—cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective (often lubricating)
sheets around organs.
2 kinds
1. Epithelial
a. Cutaneous-skin
b. Mucous
c. Serous
2. Connective
a. Synovial

Cutaneous Membrane—skin—superficial layer is composed of keratinizing stratified squamous

epithelium. Underlying dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue.
Unlike other epithelial membranes, it is exposed to air, and is dry.

Mucous membrane—also called mucosa—composed of epithelium (type varies with site),

resting on a loose connective tissue membrane called lamina propria. This type of membrane
lines all body cavities that open to the exterior (respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive).
Mucosa refers to the location of the membrane.
They are always moist, continuously bathed in secretions or urine.
Respiratory and digestive tracts secrete mucus to protect and lubricate.

Serous membrane—line body cavities that are closed to the exterior. Occur in pairs.
Parietal layer-lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral cavity
Visceral layer- covers the outside of the organs in that cavity

Pleura-lung cavity
Peritoneum-abdominal cavity
Pericardium-heart cavity

The parietal and visceral layers are separated by serous fluid.

Connective Tissue Membranes

Synovial—composed of soft areolar connective tissue and contains no epithelial cells.

These membranes line the fibrous capsules that surround joints, where they provide a smooth
surface, and secrete lubrication. Also line small sacs of connective tissue called bursae, and the
tubelike tendon sheaths. These structures cushion organs moving against each other during
muscle activity.
Cutaneous Membrane—Skin
The Integumentary System—Protection for the body
Keeps water and other molecules in, and keeps water and other things out.
Soft but tough.
Protection, insulation, cushion, protection from heat, cold, sunlight, bacteria.

The upper layer of skin is full of keratin and is hardened or cornified to prevent water loss.
Has lots of capillaries, and sweat glands controlled by the nervous system to regulate heat loss.
Acts as a mini-excretory system when we excrete salt, sweat, and water.
Acts as a chemical plant. It makes proteins for immunity and Vitamin D.
Part of the nervous system, cutaneous sensory receptors, located in the skin, to sense touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain.

Structure of the Skin.

Outer layer is the Epidermis—Stratified squamous epithelium that can keratinize
Underneath is the Dermis-mostly dense connective tissue

The two are firmly connected, and the dermis is fairly tear resistant as well. But when subject to
friction or a burn, the two layers can separate, allowing fluid between the layers, causing a
blister.

Below the dermis is the subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis, mostly adipose tissue. It anchors
skin to underlying organs. Provides fat storage, shock absorption, insulation from heat/cold.

Epidermis—can have 5 layers, called strata.

1. Stratum basale (closest to inside)
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum corneum

Epidermis is avascular (no blood supply). Most cells are keratinocytes, which contain keratin, a
fibrous protein.

Stratum basale—deepest layer, connected to dermis along a wavy borderline that looks like
corrugated cardboard. Contains the best nourished cells because it gets nutrients from the
dermis. Constantly dividing, the cells are pushed up to become parts of the other layers, the
stratum spinosum, and the stratum granulosum. As they move up in layers, the cells become
flatter, and full of keratin. When they leave the stratum granulosum, they die. When they reach
the stratum corneum, this layer is 20-30 layers thick, and is ¾ of the epidermal thickness. There
the dead cells are filled with keratin. So all the cells on the outer layer of skin are dead.

The stratum lucidum is a layer found only in palms of hands and soles of feet.
The upper layers of cells dies because they are so far from the blood supply in the dermis, they
cannot get any nutrients.

Skin pigments—melanin is found mostly in the stratum basale, the deepest layer. It is a pigment
that ranges from yellow to black, produced by melanocytes. When exposed to sunlight, more
melanin is produced, and it is taken up by the keratinocytes. Freckles and moles form where
melanin is concentrated.

Also in the epidermis, are epidermal dendritic cells, activate the immune system against bacterial
or viral invasion.

Dermis—the hide of your skin

Strong, stretchy, holds body together.

Dense (fibrous) connective tissue, consists of two regions, papillary and reticular

Papillary layer—the upper dermis. Uneven, and has peglike projections from superior surface
called dermal papillae, which indent the epidermis above it. Many of the dermal papillae contain
capillaries that furnish nutrients to the epidermis. Palms on hands and soles of feet, the papillae
are arranged in patterns that make our fingerprints.

Reticular layer—deepest skin layer. Irregularly arranged connective tissue fibers, blood vessels,
sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called lamellar corpuscles. Phagocytes here
prevent bacteria from getting any further in the body.

Throughout the dermis we have collagen and elastic fibers.

Collagen- toughness, binds water to keep skin hydrated
Elastic-stretchy, especially when young
As we age, we lose these fibers, as well as subcutaneous fat, and the skin sags, and wrinkles.

Dermis has a lot of blood vessels to maintain body temperature homeostasis. If the temperature
is high, skin becomes red, and heat radiates away from the body. When it’s cool, blood bypasses
the dermis capillaries.

Skin color- influenced by pigments (melanin, carotene) and hemoglobin-carries oxygen

Cyanosis-blue color caused by lack of oxygen, can still be seen in mucous membranes and nail
beds even in dark skinned people
Jaundice yellow color caused by problems with liver
Bruises- black and blue caused by blood clots

Skin appendages-
Cutaneous glands-all are exocrine glands- have ducts
Sebaceous glands= oil glands found everywhere except palms of hands and soles of feet.
Usually empty into a hair follicle., produce oil or sebum., keeps skin moist, kills bacteria.
If the sebaceous glands become blocked, and infected, pimples form. Acne is a result of the
infection of the sebaceous glands.

Sweat glands- sudoriferous glands—two kinds

Eccrine—very numerous- and produce sweat, water, salt, vitamin C,
How the body reduces its temperature, evaporation
Apocrine glands—found in the armpits and genitals
Ducts empty in hair follicles. Secretions contain fatty acids and proteins, has a yellow or
milky color. The odor comes from bacteria that live on the skin in those regions that use the
secretions as nutrients.

Hair-made from a hair follicle. Part enclosed in the follicle is the root. The part that projects is
the shaft. Hair forms in the stratum basale. Hair is mostly keratinized and dead.

The core of the hair is the medulla, surrounded by the cortex, and the outer layer is the cuticle.
The cuticle has many layers of keratin. Hair pigment is made in the bulb by melanocytes.

Hair follicle—contains the hair bulb where the hair grows from
Hair follicle is connected to the dermal tissue by arrector pilli—bands of smooth muscle that can
raise the hair—cause goose bumps, keeps animals warm in winter by creating an insulating layer
of air

Nails- has a free edge, body, cuticle, root (embedded in the skin). Skin folds around the edge of
the nail are the nail folds. The cuticle is the proximal nail fold. Nails are heavily keratinized,
mostly nonliving. The stratum basale underlies the nail as the nail bed as the nail matrix, which
causes nail growth. Nails look pink because of the blood supply underneath. The thick part over
the nail matrix that appears white is the lunule. If blood supply is low they appear cyanotic.

Problems with skin:

Burns: tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV, or chemicals.
Two problems occur: 1st—major fluid loss, 2nd --- infection

To determine how much of the body surface if burned, use the rule of 9’s, assigns 9% to each
body area.

1st degree burn—only burns epidermis- not serious, heals quickly, like a sunburn
2nd degree burn—burns epidermis and top layer of the dermis, painful, and causes blisters,
regeneration can occur, as long as no infection happens. Called partial-thickness
3rd degree burn—also called full thickness, burns entire layers of epidermis and dermis. Area
may appear blackened. Nerves are destroyed so pain goes away. Skin grafting must be done.
Epithelial will not grow back.
Burns are serious if:
1. Over 30% of body has 2nd degree burns
2. Over 10% of body has 3rd degree burns
3. There are any 3rd degree burns on face, hands, or feet.

Facial burns can cause swelling of the airway, causing suffocation.

Burns to the joints, reduce mobility because of scar tissue.

Skin cancer—most common type of cancer

Benign—has not spread, malignant has spread

Basal cell carcinoma, least malignant, most common. Cells of the stratum basale invade the
dermis. Often on face. Usually curable

Squamous cell carcinoma—arises from spinous spinosum

Scaly and red, can spread to lymph nodes if not treated
Caused by sun
Good chance of cure

Malignant melanoma, cancer of melanocytes—often deadly. Can develop from pigmented

moles. Spreads to lymph nodes
Abcde rule
Asymmetry
Border irregularity
Color
Diameter
Evolving