INTRODUCTION

Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without research in almost if

not all human endeavor. In government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in all
types and kinds of industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore, the methods
and techniques must be taught and learned in graduate as well as in undergraduate
educational work. This is imperative because the people who have gone through the
college and graduate levels of education are the ones who are most expected to
undertake research activities.

Objective of Research

At the end of this module the students will be able to

1. Discover new facts about Research

2. Enumerate the characteristics of a Good Research
3. Differentiate Research and Problem-solving
4. Classify kinds of Research

Definition of Research

There are almost as many definition of research as there are many authors writing
about the subject.

Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique

and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed
toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.”

According to Manuel and Medel, research is a process of gathering data or information

to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.

Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to
gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously
controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.

Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a purposive,

systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing,
presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for
invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing
knowledge, all for the prevention and improvement of the quality of human life.
Characteristics of Good Research

Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of research as follows:

1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources. It is not
research when one merely restates or merely reorganizes what is already known or
what has been written. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general
principles. It goes beyond the specific groups and situation investigated, and, by careful
sampling procedures, infers qualities of the entire population from those observed in the
smaller group.

2. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The researcher knows

what is already known about his problem. He proceeds from this point, carefully
planning his procedures. Data are gathered recorded, and analyzed with as much as
accuracy as possible. He uses such valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or
devise, and employs mechanical means to improve on the accuracy of human
observation, recording, and computation of data.

3. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives to eliminate
personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that
support his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on
testing, rather than on proving the hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking
and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.

4. Research endeavors to organize to organize data in quantitative term, if possible, and

express them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The
researcher is willing to exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to permit the data
and logic to lead to a sound conclusion. He realizes that significant findings do not come
as a result of hurried and careless procedures. Researches require courage. The
researcher is willing to follow his procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and
bring social disapproval.

5. Research is carefully recorded and report. Every term is carefully defined, all
procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are
carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded. All conclusions and
generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with due consideration for all of the limitations
of methodology, data collected, and errors of human interpretation.
Differences between Research and Problem-Solving

The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and problem-solving. His
supposed research problem may only be good for problem-solving. The differences
between the two are summarized as follows:

Research Problem-Solving relationship or phenomena by explaining

how and why certain events occurred or
1. There may not be a problem, only could have occurred. In this process
interest in answering a question or a research also generates more problems
query. to explore
2. A research problem is more rigorous 1. There is always a problem to be
and broader in scope. solved.
3. The research problem is not 2. A problem to be solved is less
necessarily defined specifically. rigorous and less broad.
4. All research is intended to solve some 3. The problem to be solved has to
kind of problem, but this is not the be defined specifically and identified
primary aim. definitely.
5. Research is conducted not primarily 4. Problem-solving does not always
to solve a problem but to make a involve research.
contribution to general knowledge.
5. Problem-solving is always
6. Research is concerned with broad intended to solve a problem.
problems, recurrent phenomena, and
wide application through generalization. 6. Problem-solving is concerned
It is concerned with defining and with a specific problem and once a
outlining the properties of phenomena problem is solved that is the end of it.
with forecasting future occurrences so
that they may be predicted and
controlled, and with describing the

Kinds and Classification of Research

There are many kinds of research which are classified according to their distinctive
features. Some of the classifications are as follows:

1. According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different kinds of research,

namely, predictive, directive, and illuminative. (Treece and Treece,Jr.,p.5)
 a. Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future
operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting
such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result from one specific
educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection
between characteristics of students and a prediction of educational outcome”.

b. Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings.

This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.

c. Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the components of

the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of
educational systems and aims to show the connection among, for example, student
characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequences.

2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as a basic or pure

research and applied research.

a. Basis or pure research is done for the development of theories or principles. It

is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has
been done in psychology and sociology.

b. Applied research is the application of the result of pure research. This is

testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that praise
reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an experiment in which
there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no
praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he
gives the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils in the class with praise
are significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is true.

3. According to the level of investigation. French categorizes research according to the

level of investigation into exploratory research, descriptive research, and experimental
research.

a. In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a

specific situation.

b. In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationship of the

variables.

c. In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effect of the variables

on each other.

4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis, Weiss classifies
research into analytic research and holistic research.
 a. In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.

b. The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the
system first and then on its internal relationship.

5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This type of research is
done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is
almost problem-solving.

6. According to choice of answer to problems. Ackoff divides research that is concerned

with finding answers to problems into evaluation and developmental research.

a. In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and

identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.

b. In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more

suitable instrument or process than has been available.

7. According to statistical content. Under this type may be mentioned quantitative

research and non-qualitative research.

a. Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are

utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation,
chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test hypothesis. This type of research
usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

b. Non-quantitative research. This is research in which the use of quantity or

statistic is practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological studies where
description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

8. According to time element. According to time element, best classifies research as

historical, descriptive, and experimental.

a. Historical research describes what was.

b. Descriptive research describes what is.

c. Experimental research describes what will be.

Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry (Errors in Personal Judgment)

Babbie gives the following as some of the hindrances to scientific inquiry. They are
mostly errors in personal judgment.

1. Tradition. This is accepting the customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions are true
and are parts of the daily lives of men. No effort is exerted to find out whether they are
true or not. For example, there is a traditional belief among some women that women
who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black food such as black berries
because their children will become dark also. This may be true or not, but many women
believe and practice it without verifying its true. People have the idea that when
everybody does a thing, it is true. This belief is a hindrance to scientific investigation.

2. Authority. This is accepting without questions, an opinion about a certain subject

which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. If an ordinary
person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may be even
laugh at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is believed without
question. Suppose, a doctor commits a mistake and it is a fact that some doctors
commit mistakes sometimes. Worse, sometimes persons with big names in the
community make pronouncements about things outside their own expertise and they
are believed because of their big names. They are believed without any scientific inquiry
about the truth of their pronouncements. For instance, a well-known athlete is made to
announce that to drink a certain brand of liquor is good because it makes the body
strong. Big stars in the movie are often made to sponsor the sale of certain products,
especially beauty enhancing things or articles, and they are believed without the
slightest semblance of any scientific investigation.

3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed. For

instance, in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees a shadow in the form of a person
and the man concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen a ghost.
When a meteor streaks the atmosphere, people who see it say they have seen a flying
saucer. When one sees a man lying unconscious in the street after he is hit by a
speeding car, he concludes at once that the person is already dead even if he is not. He
does not investigate anymore.

4. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. For,

instance, when one sees one or two Ilocano husband who are hardworking, responsible
and trustworthy then he concludes that Ilocano husband are hardworking, responsible
and trustworthy. When one happens to travel in a rough road in a certain province he
forms the impressions that the roads in the province are rough. He does not take the
pains anymore to see if the other roads in the province are also rough.
5. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an
overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns. For example, one sees for the
first time or two prosperous. Chinese store beside a poor, struggling Filipino store. He
forms the conclusion that the Chinese are shrewder and more competitive the Filipinos.
So whenever he sees Chinese and Filipino store he always has that idea that Chinese
are better businessmen than Filipinos ignoring the fact that there are also poor Chinese
businessmen and there are also very good and more competitive Filipinos
businessmen.

6. Made-up information. This is making up information to explain away confusion.

Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P20.00 and gives to the storekeeper a
P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of P70.00. The buyer goes
away without counting the change but when he gets home he finds that the change is
short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong
change, he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family
are also cheaters. Then he buys again from the store but accidentally leaves his wallet
when he is paying for the goods. A son of the storekeeper goes to the buyer’s house
returning the wallet. Instead of thinking that after all the storekeeper is an honest fellow
and perhaps also his family members, he imagines that maybe the boy went to his
house purposely not to return the wallet but to see his house for a possible burglary.

Another example of made-up information is wrongly interpreting the findings of a

research material.

7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another without any logical basis.
For instance, because of the extended good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or,
because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or, when a woman is believed to be a
sorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical basis and no effort is exerted to verify
them.

8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one finds

himself in an unfavorable situation. For instance, when foreigners make a slur on
Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without investigating
whether the slight is true or not. When a student gets a low grade, he says that he got a
low grade because his teacher has a personal grudge against him and he is a victim of
vindictiveness. He does not make any effort to examine his abilities and his habits of
study, and etc.

9. Mystification. This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be

understood. This is accepting that there are things which are beyond human intelligence
to understand and which are reserved only to a supernatural being. Thus, no effort is
exerted to make a scientific inquiry about these phenomena.
10. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the rgfhy4fallibility of man. When a
man renders a wrong decision or commits a, mistake, he merely leans on the saying
“To err is human”. He does not make any effort anymore to study why he committed the
error, how he can correct his error and how to make more sound decisions in the future.

11. Dogmatism. This is an addition. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and
governments prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the
established doctrines of such institutions or governments. Thus in communistic states, it
is unlikely that one studies and writes about the beauty of democracy. There is a veiled
prohibition to study and write about the beauty and adoption of communism. It may be a
remote possibility that a research student in Christian church-related school can make a
study about the non-existence of God. It is unlikely also that one advocates the adoption
of polygamy in a Christian community because his study findings say that polygamy is
good.
References:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.