TOPIC 3 VOICE FREQUENCY

- Normal range of the human speech

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
- Most intelligible sounds
- The Total span of frequencies and Corresponding
wavelengths used in communication system. VERY LOW FREQUENCY
- Frequencies in the higher end of the human hearing
BANDWIDTH
- Many musical instruments
- is the span of frequencies when the spectrum
- Used in some government and military
occupied by a signal and used by the signal to convey
communications
information.
- Submarine communication
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM - avalanche beacons
- wireless heart rate monitors,
- geophysics

LOW FREQUENCY
- Used in aeronautical and marine navigation
- Used as subcarriers
- Navigation, time signals
- AM longwave broadcasting

MEDIUM FREQUENCY
- AM medium wave broadcasting (535-1605 KHz)
- Various marine and aeronautical navigation

HIGH FREQUENCY
- Generally known as short waves
- Shortwave radio broadcasting
- All kinds of 2-way radio
- Government and military services for 2-way
communications
RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
- Amateur radio and CB communications
- over-the-horizon aviation communication

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY

- VHF TV Broadcasting Channels 2-13
- FM Radio Broadcasting (88-108 MHz)
- Services including mobile radio, marine and
aeronautical communications
- Line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft
communications

ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY

- UHF TV Broadcasting Channels14-83
-Land and mobile communications such as cellular
phones
-Military services
EXTREME LOW FREQUENCY - Some radar and navigation services
- AC power line - Some amateur radios
- Frequencies in the low end of the human hearing - Wireless LAN
range - Bluetooth
- Communication with submarines - GPS
SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY TOPIC 4: ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
- Microwave frequencies used in satellite
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
communications and radar
- If such power escapes on purpose, it is said to be
- Some specialized forms of 2-way radio
radiated and it then propagated in space in the form.
communications
- Microwave devices
- Wireless LAN

EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY

- Radio astronomy
- high-speed microwave radio relay
- Equipment used to generate and receive signals in this
range is extremely complex, and expensive

INFRARED
- Higher than 300 GHz
- Sandwiched between radio frequency and visible FREE SPACE – space that does not interfere with
portion of electromagnetic spectrum radiation and propagation of radiowaves.
- Radiation generally associated with heat WAVEFRONT
- Used in astronomy to detect stars and other physical – a plane joining all points of equal phase.
bodies in heaven - A wavefront shows a surface of constant phas of a
- Used in guidance in weapon systems where heat wave.
radiated from airplanes and missiles can be picked up - A wavefront is formed when points of equal phase on
infrared detectors and guide missiles toward these rays propagated from the same source are joined
targets together.
- TV remote controls
Figure shows a point source, several rays propagating
from it, and the corresponding wavefront.

POINT SOURCE - a single location from which rays

propagate equally in all directions (an isotropic source).

ISOTROPIC SOURCE – a source that radiates uniformly in

all directions

The wavefront generated from a point source is simply a

sphere with a radius R and its center located at the
point of origin of the waves.
In free space and sufficient distance from the source,
the rays within a small area of spherical wavefront are
nearly parallel.
Therefore, the farther from a source, the more wave
propagation appears as a plane wavefront.
POWER DENSITY (P) – the rate at which energy passes
through a given surface area in free space.

Power density is energy per unit time per unit of area

and is usually given in watts per square meter.

FIELD INTENSITY (E) – intensity of the electric field and EXAMPLE PROBLEM
magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave propagating
in free space.

The electric field and magnetic field intensities of

electromagnetic waves are also important.

The two quantities are the counterparts of voltage and

current in circuits.
- They are measured in volts per meter and
ampere per meter respectively just as electrical circuits
we have V = Z x H.
 ABSORPTION

ABSORPTION: In free, absorption does not occur

because there is nothing to absorb them. However, the
picture is different in the atmosphere. This tends to
absorb some radiowaves because some of the energy
from the electromagnetic waves is transferred to the
atoms and molecules in the atmosphere. Once
absorbed, the energy is lost forever and causes an
attenuation in the voltage and magnetic field intensities
and a corresponding reduction in power density.

Absorption of radio frequencies in a normal

atmosphere depends on frequency and is relatively
insignificant below 10 GHz. Frequency such as 60 and
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAES NOT IN FREE SPACE 120 GHz are not recommended for long distance
propagation in the atmosphere. Similarly, best not to
POLARIZATION – refers to physical orientation of the use 23 and 180 GHz. Except in dry air, so-called
radiowaves in space. “windows” exists at which absorption is greatly reduced;
frequency such as 33 and 110 GHz.
There is a so-called principle of reciprocity that exists in
an antenna. It states that the characteristics of antenna OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES
such as impedance and radiation pattern are identical
regardless of use for reception or transmission. REFLECTION: Radiowaves are reflected by any
conductive medium such as metal surfaces or the
ATTENUATION - The reduction in power density with earth’s surface. It is important that the electric vector be
the distance is equivalent to a power loss. perpendicular to conducting surface; otherwise surface
currents will be set up and no reflection will result.
SPACE ATTENUATION OF THE WAVE- attenuation is due
to the spherical spreading of the wave. - If the conducting surface is curved, reflection will once
again follow the appropriate optical laws. When the
reflecting surface is not plane (that is, it is curved), the
curvature of the reflected wave is different from that of
the incident wave. When the wavefront of the incident
wave is curved and the reflective surface is plane, the
curvature of the reflected wavefront is the same as that
of the incident wavefront.
- If the reflecting surface is rough, reflection will be and reflecting surfaces were large with respect to a
much the same as from a smooth surface, provided that wavelength of the signal. However, when a wavefront
the angle of incidence is in excess of the so-called passes near an obstacle or discontinuity with
Rayleigh criterion. dimensions comparable in size to a wavelength, simple
geometric analysis cannot be used to explain the results
RAYLEIGH CRITERION states that a semi rough surface
and Huygens’ principle (which is deduced from
will reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the
Maxwell’s equations) is necessary.
cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than
where d is the depth of the surface of irregularity and Huygens’ principle states that every point on a given
is the wavelength of the incident wave. wavefront can be considered as a secondary point
source of electromagnetic waves from which other
REFRACTION: Electromagnetic refraction is the change secondary (wavelets) are radiated outward.
in direction of a ray as it passes obliquely from one
medium to another with different velocities of When a finite plane wavefront is considered, as in figure
propagation. The velocity at which an electromagnetic b, cancellation in random directions in incomplete.
wave propagates is inversely proportional to the density Consequently, the wavefront spreads out or scatters.
of the medium in which it is propagating. Therefore, This scattering effect is called diffraction. Diffraction
refraction occurs whenever a radio passes from one occurs around the edge of the obstacle, which allows
medium into another medium of different density. secondary waves to “sneak” around the corner of the
Electromagnetic traveling from a rarer to a denser obstacle into what is called the shadow zone. This
medium are refracted toward the normal; waves phenomenon can be observed when a door opened in
traveling the other way are bent from the normal. to a dark room. Light rays diffract around the edge of
the door and illuminate the area behind the door.
- Refraction also occurs when a wavefront propagates
that has a density gradient that is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (that is, parallel to the
wavefront). The medium is denser near the bottom and
less dense at the top. Therefore, rays traveling near the
top travel faster than rays near the bottom and,
consequently the wavefront tilts downward.

PROPAGATION OF RADIOWAVES

The radiowave radiated from an antenna may be

classified according to the altitude of the paths along
which it is propagated.

1. GROUND WAVE or SURFACE WAVE – that portion of

the radiowaves that travels along the surface of the
DIFFRACTION: is defined as the modulation or earth and is affected by the presence of the earth and
redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it its surface features.
passes near the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is
- Ground wave is an electromagnetic wave that travels
the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to
along the surface of the earth. Therefore, ground waves
propagate (peek) around corners. The refraction and
are sometimes called surface waves.
reflection assumed that the dimensions of the refracting
- Ground waves progress along the surface of the earth - Space wave with direct waves is commonly called line-
and must be vertically polarized to prevent short- of-sight (LOS) transmission.
circuiting the electric component.
- The curvature of the earth presents a horizon to space-
- Ground waves propagate best over a surface that is a wave propagation commonly called the radio horizon.
good that is a good conductor, such as saltwater, and
- The radio horizon is approximately four-thirds of the
poorly over dry desert areas.
optical horizon.
- Ground wave losses increase rapidly with frequency.
- Refraction is caused by the troposphere, due to
Therefore, ground wave is generally limited to changes in its density, temperature, water vapor
frequencies below 2 MHz. content, and relative conductivity.

The disadvantages of ground wave propagation are as - The radio horizon can be lengthened simply by
follows: elevating the transmit or receive antennas )or both)
above earth’s surface with towers or by placing them on
1. Ground waves require a relatively high transmission
top of mountains or high buildings.
power.

2. Ground waves are limited to very low, low and

medium frequencies (VLF, LF and MF) requiring

antennas.

3. Ground losses vary considerably with surface

material.

The advantages of ground-wave propagation are as RADIO HORIZON DISTANCE COMPUTATION:

follows:

1. Given enough transmit power, ground waves can be

used to communicate between two

locations in the world.

2. Ground waves are relative unaffected by changing

atmospheric conditions.

VLF PROPAGATION. Ground wave is commonly used for

ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications, for
radio navigation, and for maritime mobile
communications. When propagation is over a good
conductor like seawater, particularly frequencies below
3. IONOSPHERIC WAVE or SKY WAVE – that portion of
100 KHz, surface absorption is small, and so is
the radiated wave which travel in space is returned to
attenuation due to the atmosphere.
earth by refraction in the ionosphere.
2. TROPOSPHERIC WAVE or SPACE WAVE – that point in
Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the
the radiated waves that undergoes reflection and
horizon level are called sky waves.
refraction in the regions of abrupt change of dielectric
constant in the troposphere. Sky waves are radiated toward the sky, where they are
either reflected or refracted back to earth by the
- Space waves travel in (more or less) straight lines.
ionosphere.
However, since they depend line-of-sight conditions,
space waves are limited in their propagation by the IONOSPHERE – the highest layer of the atmosphere and
curvature of the earth, except in very unusual due to its nearness or closeness to the sun, it
circumstances.
continuously absorbing large amount of energy from the 2. CRITICAL FREQUENCY (fc) – for a given layer, it is the
sun. highest frequency that will be returned to earth by that
layer after being beamed straight up at it.
- The ionosphere is the upper portion of the
atmosphere, which absorbs large quantities of radiant 3. CRITICAL ANGLE – the highest angle at which a wave
energy from the sun, becoming heated and ionized. of a specific frequency can be propagated and still be
returned to earth.
- The most important ionizing agents are ultraviolet,
(alpha), (beta), and (gamma) radiation from the sun, as 4. MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF) – a limiting
well as cosmic rays and meteors. frequency but for a specific angle. The MUF is the
highest frequency that can be used for sky wave
LAYERS OF THE IONOSPHERE
propagation between two specific points on earth’s
surface.

5. SKIP DISTANCE – the distance between the

transmitter and the point on the earth’s surface where
the sky wave first returns to earth.

SKIP DISTANCE - is the shortest distance from a

transmitter, measured along the surface of the earth, at
which a sky wave of fixed frequency will be returned
back to earth.
D LAYER- is the lowest, existing at an average height of
70 km, with an average thickness of 10 km.

E LAYER (also known as Kennelly-Heaviside layer, after

the two scientists who discovered it) - is next in height,
existing at about 100 km, with a thickness of perhaps 25
km.
- The main effects of the E layer are to aid MF surface-
wave propagation a little and to reflect some HF waves
6. SKIP ZONE – the portion on the earth’s surface not
in daytime.
reached by either the sky wave or the ground wave.
Es LAYER - is a thin layer of very high ionization density,
- The distance between the farthest point reached by
sometimes making an appearance with the E layer.
the ground wave and the nearest point at which the
- This upper portion of the E layer is sometimes refracted sky wave comes back to earth.
considered separately and is called sporadic E layer
7. FADING – it is the fluctuation in signal strength at the
because it seems to come and go rather unpredictably.
receiver.
F LAYER is actually made up of two layers, the F1 and F2
– it is the variation in the strength of a radio signal at
layer. The F1 layer exists at a height of 180 km in
the point of reception.
daytime and combines with F2 layer at night, its
daytime thickness is about 20 km. - Fading is a fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver
and may be rapid or slow, general frequency-selective.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS. The terminology that has
grown up around the ionosphere and sky-wave CAUSES OF FADING
propagation includes several names and expressions
Fading can occur because of the following:
whose meanings are not obvious.
1. interference between the lower and the upper rays of
1. VIRTUAL HEIGHT – The height of a layer would reach
a sky wave;
if it traveled in a straight line through the ionosphere
and was refracted as though from a mirror-like surface. 2. caused by the arrival of ground wave and sky wave at
the same point out of phase;
3. multipath transmission as a result of the different
depths of penetration into the ionosphere;

4. multipath transmission as a result of energy being

refracted from different layers;

5. radiowave travels by routes involving different

number of hops.

METHODS OF CORRECTING FADING

1. FREQUENCY DIVERSITY – the same signal to be

transmitted with different frequency and received by
two receivers and the output of a receiver is fed to a
common circuit that will combine/detect/measure
which of the two signals are stronger.

2. SPACE DIVERSITY – one transmitter and one

frequency but two receivers and two antennas with the

antennas separated on a certain distance.