MODULE-1

Basics of Networking &

Emergence of IoT
 Syllabus
❑ Basics of Networking: Introduction,
❑ Network Types,
❑ Layered network models
❑ Emergence of IoT: Introduction,
❑ Evolution of IoT,
❑ Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of
Technologies,
❑ IoT Networking Components

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 Understandings!
■ Understand the basic principles of computer networking
■ Discuss various network configurations and topologies
■ Explain various OSI (open systems interconnections) and
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol)
layers and their associated uses.
■ Explain the chronology for the evolution of Internet of
Things (IoT)
■ Relate new concepts with concepts learned earlier to
make a smooth transition to IoT.

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 Introduction
■ Data and information-centric operations.
■ The quality of any particular information is as good as the variety and
strength of the data that generates this information.
■ Today’s world relies heavily on data and networking, which allows for
the instant availability of information from anywhere on the earth.
■ Typically, networking refers to the linking of computers and
communication network devices (also referred to as hosts), which
interconnect through a network and are separated by unique device
identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and media access control,
MAC addresses).
■ These hosts may be connected by a single path or through multiple
paths for sending and receiving data.
■ The data transferred between the hosts may be text, images, or
videos, which are typically in the form of binary bit streams.

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 How Does a Computer Network Work?

■ Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and

Links.
■ A Network Node is a Equipment for Data Communication like a
Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like
connecting two computers or more.
■ Link in Computer Networks can be defined as wires/cables or
free space of wireless networks.
■ The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as
rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving data via
the links which allow Computer networks to communicate.
■ Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a
device.

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Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

▪ Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are

connected together to enable communication and data exchange.
▪ Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can
include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
▪ Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is
transmitted over a network. Example: TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
▪ Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement
of nodes on a network.
▪ Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to
take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider.
Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data
Carriers, etc.
▪ IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned
to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and
enable communication between them.
▪ Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect
networks from unauthorized access and other security threats.

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 Network Types

■ Computer networks are classified according to various

parameters:
1) Type of connection,
2) Physical topology, and
3) Reach of the network
■ These classifications are helpful in deciding the
requirements of a network setup and provide insights into
the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.

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 Network Types
Connection types
■ Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer
networks are of two types: Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint
■ Point-to-point:
■ Direct connections between two hosts.
■ A remote control for an AC or TV is a point to point connection.

▪ These networks were designed to

work over duplex links and are
functional for both synchronous as
well as asynchronous systems.
▪ Point to point connections find
usage for specific purposes such as
in optical networks.

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 Network Types
Connection types
■ Point-to-multipoint:
■ More than two hosts share the same link, like one-to-many connection type.
■ This finds popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony.
■ The channel is shared between the various hosts, either spatially or
temporally.
▪ One common scheme of spatial
sharing of the channel is frequency
division multiple access (FDMA).
▪ Temporal sharing of channels
include approaches such as time
division multiple access (TDMA).
▪ Point-to-multipoint connection is
find popular, especially while
enabling communication between a
massive number of connected
devices.
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 Network Types
Physical topology
■ Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between
the hosts are connected, computer networks can have four broad topologies—
Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.
■ Star: In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central
controller or hub. The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly;
they can only do so through the central hub.
■ The hub acts as the network traffic exchange. For large-scale systems, the hub,
essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle all the simultaneous traffic
flowing through it.

▪ The main advantages of the star topology are

easy installation, cheaper and the ease of fault
identification within the network.
▪ However, the main disadvantage of this
topology is the danger of a single point of
failure. If the hub fails, the whole network fails.

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 Network Types
Physical topology
■ Mesh: In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a
dedicated link (in a point-to-point manner). This implies that for n hosts in a
mesh, there are a total of n(n-1)/2 dedicated full duplex links between the
hosts.
■ This massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive.
■ The first significant advantage is the robustness and resilience of the system.
Even if a link is down or broken, the network is still fully functional as there
remain other pathways for the traffic to flow through.

▪ The second advantage is the security and

privacy of the traffic as the data is only
seen by the intended recipients and not
by all members of the network.
▪ The third advantage is the reduced data
load on a single host, as every host in this
network takes care of its traffic load.

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 Network Types
Physical topology
■ Bus: A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection.
■ A backbone cable or bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the
hosts. The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.
■ The main advantage of this topology is the ease of installation. However, there
is a restriction on the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be
simultaneously connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus.
▪ The bus topology has a simple
cabling procedure in which a
backbone cable can be used for
an unit. Multiple drop lines and
taps can be used to connect
various hosts to the bus, making
installation very easy and cheap.
▪ However, the main drawback of
this topology is the difficulty in
fault localization within the
network.
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 Network Types
Physical topology
■ Ring: A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection.
■ Here, each host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection
with its two immediate neighboring hosts on either side of it through repeaters
at each host.
■ The repetition of this system forms a ring. The repeaters at each host capture
the incoming signal intended for other hosts, regenerates the bit stream, and
passes it onto the next repeater.

▪ Fault identification and set up of

the ring topology is quite simple
and straightforward.
▪ However, the main disadvantage of
this system is the high probability
of a single point of failure. If even
one repeater fails, the whole
network goes down.

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 Network topology comparison

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 Network Types
Network reachability
■ Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on
network reachability: personal area networks, local area networks,
wide area networks, and metropolitan area networks.
■ Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs are mostly restricted to individual
usage.
■ A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones,
wireless speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless
mouse, and printers within a house.
■ Generally, PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range
and low-power technologies such as Bluetooth.
■ The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few
meters.

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 Network Types
Network reachability
■ Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network
through wired or wireless connections.
■ However, LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses. Typically, a
few leased lines connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole
organization; the lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN
enabling hosts. This also allows the organization to define various access control
policies for web access within its hierarchy.
■ Typically, the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to
1000 Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels.
■ Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches,
terminals, and computers.
■ Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations.
However, they are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country.
■ The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate. Typically,
WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use public switched telephone networks
(PSTNs) or satellite-based links.
■ Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise
during transmission and are very costly to maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are
also generally low.

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 Network Types
Network reachability

■ Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The reachability of a MAN

lies between that of a LAN and a WAN. Typically, MANs connect
various organizations or buildings within a given geographic
location or city.
■ An excellent example of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP)
supplying Internet connectivity to various organizations within a
city.
■ As MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even
single organizations.
■ Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and
cables. MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels.

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 Layered Network Models
■ The intercommunication between hosts in any computer
network is built upon the premise of various task-specific
layers.
■ Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional
layered network models are the open systems
interconnection developed by the International
Organization of Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
and the Internet protocol suite.

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 OSI Model
■ The OSI or open system interconnect model for networked
devices was standardized by the International Standards
Organization (ISO).
■ It is a conceptual framework that divides any networked
communication system into seven layers each performing
distinct tasks based on the underlying technology and
internal structure of the hosts.
■ The OSI is a reference model and is maintained by the ISO
under the identity of ISO/IEC 7498-1.
■ These seven layers, from bottom-up, are as follows: 1)
Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network layer, 4)
Transport layer, 5) Session layer, 6) Presentation layer, and
7) Application layer.

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https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/ddos/glossary/open-systems-interconnection-model-osi/
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https://community.fs.com/blog/tcpip-vs-osi-whats-the-difference-between-the-two-models.html

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 OSI Layers
■ Physical Layer: This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1
of the OSI model.
■ The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and
mechanical operations of the host at the actual physical level. These
operations include or deal with issues relating to signal generation,
signal transfer, voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout,
line impedances, and signal loss.
■ This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network
(star, mesh, bus, or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full
duplex), and bit rate control operations.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a
symbol.

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 OSI Layers
■ Data Link Layer: This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model.
■ The data link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and
termination of the connection between two hosts, and the detection and
correction of errors during communication between two or more
connected hosts.
■ IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers: Medium
access control (MAC) and logical link control (LLC).
■ MAC is responsible for access control and permissions for connecting
networked devices; whereas LLC is mainly tasked with error checking, flow
control, and frame synchronization.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.
■ Network Layer: This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model.
■ It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to different
networks through logical paths called virtual circuits. These logical paths
may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before reaching the
actual destination host.
■ The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing of packets,
congestion control, error handling, and Internetworking.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.

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 OSI Layers
■ Transport Layer: This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
■ The transport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow
control to achieve a transparent transfer of data between hosts.
■ This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during
variable-length data transfer between hosts.
■ In case of loss of data, or when no acknowledgment is received, the
transport layer ensures that the particular erroneous data segment is
re-sent to the receiving host.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a
segment or datagram.
■ Session Layer: This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer.
■ It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of
communication between networked hosts.
■ The session layer sees full utilization during operations such as
remote procedure calls and remote sessions.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

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 OSI Layers
■ Presentation Layer: This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI
model.
■ It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption
tasks such that the syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained
across the network, for which it is also referred to as the syntax layer.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
■ Application Layer: This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer.
■ It is directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs
(application program interfaces) and terminals.
■ Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails,
and other such operations are initiated from this layer.
■ The application layer deals with user authentication, identification of
communication hosts, quality of service, and privacy.
■ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

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 OSI Layers
A networked communication between two hosts following the OSI model
is shown in Figure.

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 OSI Layers
Table summarizes the OSI layers and their features, where PDU stands for
protocol data unit.

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 Internet protocol suite
■ The Internet protocol suite is yet another conceptual framework that provides
levels of abstraction for ease of understanding and development of
communication and networked systems on the Internet.
■ However, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and provides only
four levels of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport layer, and
4) application layer.
■ This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP protocol
suite as the foundation technologies of this suite are transmission control
protocol (TCP) and Internet protocol (IP).
■ The development of the TCP/IP protocol suite is originally attributed to DARPA,
which is part of the United States Department of Defence.

https://www.comparitech.com/
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 Internet protocol suite
■ Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as
the network interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical
and data link layer of the OSI model.
■ It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
■ According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium
in use, frame format, and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide
range of technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN, and the asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM).
■ Internet Layer: Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to
the network layer of the OSI model.
■ It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
■ Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol
(ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP), and
Internet group management protocol (IGMP).
■ Traditionally, this layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6,
enabling the accommodation of a much more significant number of addresses
and security measures.

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 Internet protocol suite
■ Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally
synonymous with the transport layer of the OSI model.
■ This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control, congestion
control, segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also
independent of the underlying network.
■ Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are the
core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it to have
the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services
between two or more hosts or networked devices.
■ Application Layer: The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the
TCP/IP protocol suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the
OSI model’s session, presentation, and application layers.
■ This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers
and defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
■ Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail
transfer protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing information
protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol (SNMP) are some of
the core protocols associated with this layer.

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A networked communication between two hosts following the TCP/IP
model is shown in Figure.

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 IOT-Introduction
■ Network-connected devices - Internet of Things (IoT).
■ Present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through it.
■ This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text,
numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages, data from
sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home
automation system status and control messages, military
communications, and many more.
■ This huge variety of data is generated from a massive number of
connected devices, which may be directly connected to the Internet /
connected through gateway devices.
■ According to statistics from the Information Handling Services, the
total number of connected devices globally is estimated to be around
25 billion. This number is projected to triple within a short span of 5Yr.
■ The miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability of
technology is resulting in a surge of connected devices, which in turn is
leading to an explosion of traffic flowing through the Internet.

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The IoT is the network of physical objects that
contain embedded technology to
communicate and sense or interact with their
internal states or the external environment."
-Gartner Research

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■ One of the best examples of this explosion is the evolution of smartphones.
From 1990’s to the next 10 years, cellular technology had become common
and easily affordable.
■ With time, the features of these devices evolved, and the dependence of
various applications and services on these gadgets on packet-based Internet
accesses started rapidly increasing.
■ The range of applications on these gadgets such as messaging, video calling, e-
mails, games, music streaming, video streaming, and others are solely
dependent on network provider allocated Internet access or WiFi.
■ In line with this trend, other connected devices have rapidly increased in
numbers resulting in the number of devices exceeding the number of humans
on Earth by multiple times. Now imagine that as all technologies and domains
are moving toward smart management of systems, the number of
sensor/actuator-based systems is rapidly increasing.
■ With time, the need for location-independent access to monitored and
controlled systems keep on rising. This rise in number leads to a further rise in
the number of Internet-connected devices.

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■ The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now
connected with all sorts of “Things”. These things can be legacy devices,
computers, sensors, actuators, household appliances, toys, clothes, shoes,
vehicles, cameras, and anything which may benefit a product by increasing
its scientific value, accuracy, or even its cosmetic value.
■ IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything network of Internet-connected
physical devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and
affecting the sensed environment intelligently.
■ This is generally achieved using low-power and low-form-factor embedded
processors on-board the “things” connected to the Internet.
■ IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices, machines, and
tools; these things are made up of sensors/actuators and processors, which
connect to the Internet through wireless technologies.
■ Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features:
• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices,
and non IP devices.
• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

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■ IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as
compared to electricity and telephony. These speculations, from the various
statistics shown in Figure.
■ According to an International Data Corporation (IDC) report, worldwide
spending on IoT is reported to have crossed USD 700 billion. The projected
spending on IoT based technologies worldwide is estimated to be about USD
1:1 trillion.
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Similarly, the compounded annual growth
rate of IoT between the years 2016 and
2021, as depicted in Figure, shows that the
majority of the market share is captured by
consumer goods, which is closely followed
by insurance and healthcare industries.

However, the combined industrial share

of IoT growth is 32% of the collective
market, which is again more than that
of the consumer market. Figure shows
the IoT market share of various sectors.
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 Evolution of IoT
■ The IoT, is a series of technological paradigm shifts over a few
decades. The technologies that laid the foundation of
connected systems by achieving easy integration to daily lives,
popular public acceptance, and massive benefits.
■ Figure shows the sequence of technological advancements for
shaping the IoT (emergence of IoT).

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 Modern day IoT Usage
■ ATM: Automated Teller Machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the
identity of a user and their account through a specially coded card. The central
concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even when
banks were closed. These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers. The first
ATM became operational and connected online in 1974.
■ Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication
platform. The Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it
has been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of
computing and communication.
■ Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became
operational in early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating
remotely with the power grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers
power usage and eased the process of billing and power allocation from grids.
■ Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at
connected home-automation systems. The digital locks are so robust that
smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as locking and
unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists,
can be easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.

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■ Connected Healthcare: The healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and
relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The
devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse
of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals. The
connected tells the medical records and test results much faster, cheaper, and
convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.
■ Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with
other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it. These
vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
■ Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and
actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves
enables unified and synchronized operations and information dissemination. Some
of the facilities which may benefit are parking, transportation, and others.
■ Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each,
they can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot
operate. For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or
even to diagnose problems in the human body.
■ Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines,
distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction in
mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes.
■ UAVs: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions
tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries,
stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.

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■ IoT spans across various domains and applications. The major highlight
of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology
enabler.
■ Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously
over IoT-based platforms. Support for legacy technologies and
standalone paradigms, along with modern developments, makes IoT
quite robust and economical for commercial, industrial, as well as
consumer applications.
■ IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking,
smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste
management, smart roads, structural health, urban noise maps, river
floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages, radiation
levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control, snow
level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution,
smart grid, tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field
communications) payments, intelligent shopping applications,
landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes,
supply chain control, smart product management, and others.

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■ Figure shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other
domains and networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of
environment (IoE), the Internet of people (IoP), and Industry 4.0.
■ Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but the
omnipresent nature of IoT implies that these domains act as subsets of IoT.

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■ M2M: The machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of
connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves
without human intervention. The communication between the machines
can be for updates on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and
others), collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the systems
and the environment, and others.
■ CPS: The cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop
from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation using a feedback
mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment
through the feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired
state is attained, the system keeps on actuating and sensing. Humans
have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the
ground-level operations are automated.
■ IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even
reversing the ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies
on the environment. The major focus areas of this paradigm include
smart and sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats,
enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and processes, and others.

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■ Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is referred as the fourth industrial revolution
pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The previous
revolutions with mechanization, mass production, and the industrial
revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the
concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another without
much human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT. The
digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better
resource and workforce management, optimization of production time
and resources, and better lifetimes of industrial systems.
■ IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to
decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and
other tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s
data. A famous site for IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin
has severely limited the power of banks and governments, the
acceptance of IoP will limit the power of corporations, governments,
and their spy agencies.

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 IoT v/s M2M
■ The machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and
interactions between various machines and devices. These
interactions can be enabled through a cloud computing
infrastructure, a server, or simply a local network hub. M2M
collects data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling
device management and device interaction. Telecom services
providers introduced the term M2M, and technically emphasized
on machine interactions via one or more communication
networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
■ M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-
domains, as shown in Figure. M2M standards occupy a core place
in the IoT landscape. However, in terms of operational and
functional scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader
range of interactions such as the interactions between
devices/things, things and applications, and people with
applications; M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows
comprising such interactions within IoT.

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 IoT v/s CPS
■ Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation,
and feedback as a complete package. Digital twin is attached to a CPS-
based system. A digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in which
the system signifies a physical system, while the model represents the
mathematical model or representation of the physical system’s
behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a
physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the comparison of the
physical system’s output, performance, and health. Based on feedback
from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given corrective
directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.
■ In contrast, the IoT does not compulsorily need feedback or a digital
twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than controls. Some of
the constituent sub systems in an IoT environment may include
feedback and controls too. In this light, CPS may be considered as one
of the sub-domains of IoT, as shown in Figure.

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 IoT v/s WoT
■ From a developer’s view, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables
access and control over IoT resources and applications. These resources
and applications are generally built using technologies such as HTML
5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and others. REST (representational state
transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT.
■ The use of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program
interface) enables both developers and deployers to benefit from the
recognition, acceptance, and maturity of existing web technologies.
Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability
and security challenges, especially when trying to build a globally
uniform WoT.
■ As IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things,
people, systems, and applications, which often do not consider the
unification aspect and the limitations of the Internet, the need for WoT,
which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT into the existing
Web is really invaluable. Technically, WoT can be thought of as an
application layer-based hat added over the network layer. However, the
scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also which includes non-
IP-based systems that are not accessible through the web.

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Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence
of Technologies
■ IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies, which occur at
various planes of this paradigm. In the below Figure, we can divide the IoT paradigm
into four planes: services, local connectivity, global connectivity, and processing.
■ If we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered fall under the control and purview
of service providers. The service plane is composed of two parts: 1) things or devices
and 2) low-power connectivity.
■ Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low power
connectivity. For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing,
followed by rudimentary processing, and a low-power, low-range network, which is
mainly built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
■ The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart
glasses, factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, etc. The immediate low-
power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things in local
implementation, may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular.
■ Modern-day technologies are mainly wireless and often programmable such as Zigbee,
RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH, Insteon, and others. The range of these
connectivity technologies is severely restricted; they are responsible for the
connectivity between the things of the IoT and the nearest hub/gateway to access the
Internet.
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 The IoT planes, various
enablers of IoT, and the
complex interdependencies
among them.

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■ The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to
multiple local IoT deployments. This distribution may be on the basis of the
physical placement of the things, on the basis of the application domains, or
even on the basis of providers of services.
■ Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep
scheduling, and others fall within the scope of this plane. For example, in a
smart home environment, the first floor and the ground floor may have local
IoT implementations, which have various things connected to the network
via low-power, low-range connectivity technologies. The traffic from these
two floors merges into a single router or a gateway. The total traffic intended
for the Internet from a smart home leaves through a single gateway or
router, which may be assigned a single global IP address.
■ The local connectivity plane falls under the purview of IoT management as it
directly deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things and
applications. The “edge computing” paradigm is deployed in conjunction
with these first two planes: services and local connectivity.
■ The penultimate plane of global connectivity plays a significant role in
enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide implementations
and connectivity between things, users, controllers, and applications. This
plane also falls under the purview of IoT management as it decides how and
when to store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which
form to forward it. The Web, data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others
make up this plane.

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■ The paradigm of “fog computing” lies between the planes of local
connectivity and global connectivity. It often serves to manage the load of
global connectivity infrastructure by offloading the computation nearer to
the source of the data itself, which reduces the traffic load on the global
Internet.
■ The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the basic IoT
networking framework.
■ The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various
application areas such as industries, transportation, healthcare, and others
is the result of this plane.
■ The members in this plane may be termed as IoT tools, simply because they
wring-out useful and human-readable information from all the raw data
that flows from various IoT devices and deployments.
■ The various sub-domains of this plane include intelligence, conversion,
learning (making sense of temporal and spatial data patterns), cognition
(recognizing patterns and mapping it to known patterns), algorithms
(various control and monitoring algorithms), visualization (rendering
numbers and strings in the form of graphs, charts, and projections), and
analysis. Various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine
Learning”, and others, fall within the scope of this domain.

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 IoT Networking Components
■ An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may
vary with their application domains. We outline the broad components
that come into play during the establishment of any IoT network, into
six types: 1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT WAN, 5) IoT
gateway, and 6) IoT proxy.
■ A typical IoT implementation from a networking perspective is shown in
Figure. The individual components are briefly described here:
■ IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of
these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio,
which communicates with the network infrastructure. The nodes may
be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a
common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are
through gateways and proxies.
■ IoT Router: An IoT router is a piece of networking equipment that is
primarily tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in
the IoT network; it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the
network. A router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its
functionalities.

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 A typical IoT network ecosystem highlighting the various
networking components from IoT nodes to the Internet
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■ IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity
within a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range
connectivity technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected
to the Internet. Generally, they are localized within a building or
an organization.
■ IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various
network segments such as LANs. They are typically
organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational
range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to
the segments they are connecting.
■ IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the
IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement
several LANs and WANs. Their primary task is to forward packets
between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer using only layer 3.
■ IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and
performs application layer functions between IoT nodes and
other entities. Typically, application layer proxies are a means of
providing security to the network entities under it; it helps to
extend the addressing range of its network.

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■ In Figure, various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another
as well as talk to the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it.
■ The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers. These identifiers
are unique only within a LAN. There is a high chance that these identifiers
may be repeated in a new LAN. Each
■ IoT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IoT LAN-x. A
router acts as a connecting link between various LANs by forwarding
messages from the LANs to the IoT gateway or the IoT proxy. As the proxy is
an application layer device, it is additionally possible to include features such
as firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the regular
routing operations.
■ Various gateways connect to an IoT WAN, which links these devices to the
Internet. There may be cases where the gateway or the proxy may directly
connect to the Internet.
■ This network may be wired or wireless; however, IoT deployments heavily
rely on wireless solutions. This is mainly attributed to the large number of
devices that are integrated into the network; wireless technology is the only
feasible and neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles of laying wires and
dealing with the restricted mobility rising out of wired connections.

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