CHAPTER 5

Pulse Code Modulations

PCM is a method of converting an analog signal into a digital signal (A/D conversion). An
analog signal is characterized by the fact that its amplitude can take on any value over a
continuous range. This means that it can take on an infinite number of values. On the other hand,
digital signal amplitude can take on only a finite number of values. An analog signal can be
converted into digital signal by means of sampling and quantizing, that is, rounding of its value
to one of the closest permissible numbers (or quantized levels).

5.1 Advantages of Digital Communication

1. Digital communication is more rugged than analog communication because it can

withstand channel noise and distortion much better as long as the noise and distortion are
within limits.
2. The greatest advantage of digital communication over analog communication, however,
is the viability of regenerative repeaters in the former.
3. Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits the use of microprocessors,
digital switching and large scale integrated circuits.
4. Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low error rates and high fidelity as well as
privacy.
5. It is easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital signals.
6. Digital communication is inherently more efficient than analog in realizing the exchange
of SNR for bandwidth.
7. Digital signal storage is relatively easy and inexpensive.
8. Reproduction with digital messages is extremely reliable without deterioration.

5.2 Quantization Process

Amplitude quantization is defined as the process of transforming the sample amplitude ( )
of a message signal () at time  =  into discrete amplitude ( ) taken from a finite set
of possible amplitudes.

When dealing with a memory less quantizer, we may simplify the notation by dropping the time
index.

Fig. 1: Description of a memory less quantizer

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As shown in Figure. 1b, the signal amplitude m is specified by the index k if it lies inside the
partition cell

:  <  ≤   ,  = 1, 2, … … , 

where L is the total number of amplitude levels used in the quantizer. The discrete
amplitudes  ,  = 1, 2, … … ,  at the quantizer input are called decision levels or decision
thresholds. At the quantizer output, the index k is transformed into an amplitude that
represents all amplitudes of the cell ; the discrete amplitudes , k = 1, 2,…, L, are called
representation levels or reconstruction levels, and the spacing between two adjacent
representation levels is called a quantum or step-size. Thus, the mapping

= ()

is the quantizer characteristic, which is a staircase function by definition.

Fig. 2: Two types of quantization a) midtread and b) midrise.

5.3 Quantization Noise

The use of quantization introduces an error defined as the difference between the input signal m
and the output signal v. The error is called Quantization Noise.

Let the quantizer input m be the sample value of a zero-mean random variable M. A
quantizer (. ) maps the input random variable M of continuous amplitude into a discrete random
variable V; their respective values m and v are related by = (). Let the quantization error
be denoted by the random variable Q of sample value q. We may thus write:

=− , !"#$%&', ( =)−*

Consider then an input m of continuous amplitude in the range (−+,- , +,- ). Assuming a
uniform quantizer of the midrise type, we find that the step size of the quantizer is given by

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Fig. 3: (a) Quantizer characteristic of a uniform quantizer (b) Error signal

Fig. 4: a) An analog signal and its quantized version b) the error signal

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 2+,-
∆=

where L is the total number of representation levels.

For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error Q will have its sample values bounded
by− ∆⁄2 ≤  ≤ ∆⁄2. If the step size is sufficiently small, it is reasonable to assume that the
quantization error Q is uniformly distributed random variable. We may thus express the
probability density function of the quantization error as follows:

1 ∆ ∆
01 () = 2∆ − 2 ≤  ≤ 26
0 ℎ!5%"!
The variance, 71 8 , is

71 8 = 91 (8) − 9 8 1

∆;
8
71 = 91
8 (8)
=:  8 01 ()$
<∆;
8

∆;
8 1 8
71 = :
8
 $
<∆; ∆
8

1  > ∆⁄2
71 8
= = @
∆ 3 −∆⁄2

∆8
71 8 =
12
Let R denote the number of bits per sample used in the construction of the binary code. We may
then write:

 = 2A , !B% C&!&', D = log 8 

Hence the step size is:

2+,- 2+,-
∆= =
 2A
Thus,

∆8
71 8
=
12

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 1
71 8 = +,- 8 2<8A
3
Let P denote the average power of the message signal m (t). We may then express the output
signal-to-noise ratio of a uniform quantizer as

K
HIDJ =
71 8

3K
HIDJ = L M 28A
+,- 8

Example 1

Let N() be modeled as the sample function of a zero mean stationary process O() with a
uniform PDF, in the range (-a, a). Find the SNR assuming an R-bit code word per sample. (Ans:
SNRq (in dB) = 6R)

Example 2

Find HIDJ of a sinusoidal modulating signal of peak amplitude P+ and express it in decibels if
the number of bits per sample is N. (Ans: SNRq (in dB) = 6N+1.76)

Example 3

a. Express HIDJ in decibels for a triangular waveform with *QQ = H assuming N number of
bits per sample. (Ans: SNRq (in dB) = 6N)

b. Repeat part a) for a square waveform. (Ans: SNRq (in dB) = 6N+4.77)

Example 4

A signal () with amplitude variations in the range (−Q  Q ) is to be sent using PCM with
a uniform quantizer. The quantization error should be less than or equal to 0.1 percent of the
peak value Q . If the signal is band limited to 5 kHz, find the minimum bit rate required by this
scheme. (Ans: 105bps)

Example 5

A signal () band limited to 3 kHz is sampled at a rate 33 > % higher than the Nyquist rate. The
maximum acceptable error in the sample amplitude (the maximum quantization error) is 0.5% of

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the peak amplitude Q . The quantized samples are binary coded. Find the minimum bandwidth
of a channel required to transmit the encoded binary signal. If 24 such signals are time-division-
multiplexed, determine the minimum transmission bandwidth required to transmit the
multiplexed signal. (Ans: BT=32 kHz, 0.768 MHz)

5.4 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

In PCM, a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished

by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.

Sampling

The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses so as to
closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process. To ensure perfect reconstruction of the
message signal at the receiver, the sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency
component W of the message signal in accordance with the sampling theorem. In practice, a low-
pass anti-aliasing filter is used at the front end of the sampler to exclude frequencies greater than
W before sampling. Thus the application of sampling permits the reduction of the continuously
varying message signal (of some finite duration) to a limited number of discrete values per
second.

Fig. 5: PCM transmission system

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Quantization

The sampled version of the message signal is then quantized, thereby providing a new
representation of the signal that is discrete in both time and amplitude. The quantization process
may follow a uniform low but in telephonic communication it is preferable to use a variable
separation between the representation levels (non-uniform quantizer).

Fig. 6: A message signal is regularly sampled. Quantization levels are indicated. For each sample
the quantized value is given and its binary representation is indicated.

Encoding

The encoding operation converts the quantized samples into a form that is more convenient for
the purpose of transmission. It is a one to one representation of the quantized samples by using
code elements or symbols of the required length per sample. Any plan for representing each of
this discrete set of values as a particular arrangement of discrete events is called a code. A
particular arrangement of symbols used in a code to represent a single value of the discrete event
is called a code word or character.

Line codes

The binary digits may be represented by electrical pulses in order to transmit the code
representation of each quantized level over a communication channel. Any of the following
codes can be used for the electrical representation of a binary data stream.

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1. Unipolar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling

Symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a pulse of amplitude A for the duration of
the symbol, and symbol 0 is represented by switching off the pulse.

This line code is also referred to as an on-off signaling.

Disadvantages:- waste of power due to the transmitted DC level and the fact that
the power spectrum of the transmitted signal does not approach at zero frequency.

Example: 01101001

2. Polar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling

Symbols 1 and 0 are represented by transmitting pulses of amplitudes +A and –A,
respectively.

Relatively easy to generate but the power spectrum of the signal is large near zero
frequency.

Example: 01101001

3. Unipolar return-to-zero (RZ) signaling

Symbol 1 is transmitted by a rectangular pulse of amplitude A and half-symbol
width, and symbol 0 is represented by transmitting no pulse.

Example: 01101001

4. Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ) signaling

Uses three amplitude levels. Specifically, positive and negative pulses of equal
amplitude (i.e. +A and -A) are used alternatively for symbol 1, with each pulse
having a half symbol width; no pulse is always used for symbol 0.

It has no DC component and relatively insignificant low-frequency components
for the case when symbols 1 and 0 occur with equal probability.

It is also called alternate mark inversion (AMI) signaling.

Example: 01101001

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 5. Split-phase (Manchester code)

Symbol 1 is represented by a positive pulse of amplitude A followed by a
negative pulse of amplitude –A, with both pulses being half-symbol wide. For
symbol 0, the polarities of these two pulses are reversed.

Logical 0: positive transition in the middle of a bit time.

Logical 1: negative transition in the middle of a bit time.

Example: 01101001

Example 2:

Binary data: 10010110

Regeneration

Three basic functions are performed by a regenerative repeater: equalization, timing and decision
making.

 The equalizer shapes the received pulses so as to compensate for the effect of amplitude
and phase distortions produced by the non-ideal transmission characteristics of the
channel.

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  The timing circuitry provides a periodic pulse train, derived from the received pulses, for
the sampling the equalized pulses at the instants of time where the signal to noise ratio is
maximum.
 In the decision making device, each sample is compared to a predetermined threshold. In
each bit interval, a decision is then made whether the received symbol is a 1 or a 0 on the
basis of whether the threshold is exceeded or not. If the threshold is exceeded a clean new
pulse representing symbol 1 is transmitted; otherwise, another clean new pulse
representing symbol 0 is transmitted. In this way, the accumulation of distortion and
noise in a repeater span is completely removed provided that, the disturbance is not too
large to cause an error in the decision making process.

Decoding

The decoding process involves generating a pulse the amplitude of which is the linear sum of all
the pulses in the code word, with each pulse being weighted by its place value (20, 21, 22, … 2R-1)
in the code, where R is the number of bits per sample.

Filtering

The final operation in the receiver is to recover the message signal by passing the decoder output
through a low-pass reconstruction filter whose cutoff frequency is equal to the message
bandwidth.

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