Support and Movement

in Animals
Key Concepts:
Different Types of Skeletons, The Human Skeleton, The Axial
Skeleton, The Appendicular Skeleton, Structure of a Long Bone,
Tissues, Joints, Skeletal Muscles, Diseases of the
Musculoskeletal System, Injuries of the Musculoskeletal System
Page 1.15 - 1.28

Created by Ms. C.R. Els

 Topic 1:
Different Types of Skeletons
Key Concepts:
Hydrostatic Skeleton, Exoskeleton, Endoskeleton
and Vertebrates vs Invertebrates
Page 1.15 - 1.16

Three Types of Skeletons

There are three different types of skeletons:
Hydrostatic
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton

Hydrostatic Skeleton
What is a hydrostatic skeleton?
A hydrostatic skeleton consists of a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by muscles.
The fluid provides support against which the muscles can contract.
The fluid also exerts a pressure which works with the contraction of the surrounding muscles:
This allows the animal to change shape
It allows the animal to carry out specific movements such as digging, crawling or swimming
This type of skeleton occurs in invertebrate animals with soft bodies such as:
Jellyfish, earthworms, sea anemones

Definition: An invertebrate is an organism which does not have a vertebral column (internal skeleton of
bone or cartilage)

What are the advantages of a hydrostatic skeleton?

Animals with a hydrostatic skeleton do not need a specialised support system.
This is because they usually live in water and the water provides the support that their bodies need.

What are the disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton?

Animals with a hydrostatic skeleton cannot perform fast movements such as walking or running.
Hydrostatic skeletons only occur in animals that are found in aquatic or moist environments.
It limits the size to which the animal can grow.
Does not provide the animal with a large amount of protection.

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 Exoskeleton
What is an exoskeleton?
An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that occurs on the outside of the animal's body.
The exoskeleton consists of a polysaccharide known as chitin.
Chitin is a modified carbohydrate similar to cellulose which is found in plants.
Just like cellulose, chitin provides strength and support to the organism.
It is often hardened with calcium carbonate.
The largest group of organisms which have an exoskeleton belong to the phylum Arthropoda, which have the
following characteristics:
Segmented bodies
Appendages such as legs, wings and mouth parts
Appendages connected to the segmented body by joints
This type of skeleton also occurs in invertebrate animals with soft underlying tissues:
Insects, lobsters, centipedes, and barnacles.

What are the advantages of an exoskeleton?

This type of skeleton supports and protects soft underlying tissues and organs from injury.
The inside of an exoskeleton provides a place of attachment for muscles.
This allows these animals to make movements as quick as possible.
There are joints which occur at places where the exoskeleton is thin and flexible.
This allows movement.
It prevents desiccation of the body of the animal.

Definition: Desiccation is the loss of moisture from an organism (drying out)

What are the disadvantages of an exoskeleton?

An exoskeleton limits the size of an animal.
The larger the animal, the larger and heavier the exoskeleton is.
This then limits the animal's movement.
It limits the growth of the animal.
The chitin cannot stretch or expand so during growth periods the animal must shed it's exoskeleton
first.
After the hard exoskeleton has shed, the new underlying skeleton is soft which makes the animal
vulnerable to enemy attacks.
This type of skeleton is impermeable to gases so the animal needs to have special respiratory organs that
have openings to the outside.

Definition: Moulting is the process in which an animal sheds its exoskeleton

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 Endoskeleton
What is an endoskeleton?
An endoskeleton is an internal skeleton that occurs on the inside of the animal's body.
They consist mainly of bone and cartilage.
Animals which have an endoskeleton belong to the phylum Chordata.
This type of skeleton occurs in vertebrate animals such as:
Mammals, reptiles, birds, fish and amphibians.

Definition: A vertebrate is an organism which does have a vertebral column (internal skeleton of bone or
cartilage)

What are the advantages of an endoskeleton?

Bone and cartilage are living tissues that grow when the organism grows.
This allows organisms with an endoskeleton to grow to a large size.
It protects special organs such as the heart, lungs and brain.
It provides a great amount of structural support and gives shape to the body.
The endoskeleton also provides a point of attachment for muscles which makes movement possible.
This also allows these animals to make movements as quick as possible.
There are joints between bones.
This makes the body flexible.
These joints work together with muscles to create more efficient movement.

What are the disadvantages of an endoskeleton?

Animals with an endoskeleton are more vulnerable to a few factors compared to those with an exoskeleton.
Desiccation
Heat
Cold
There are not many other disadvatages of an endoskelton which explains why they occur in so many large
animals.

Practice Exercise
Unit 2
Question 1
Page 1.90

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 3

 Topic 2:
The Human Skeleton
Key Concepts:
Functions of the Human Skeleton and Structure of the
Human Skeleton, Diagram of the Human Skeleton
Page 1.16 - 1.17

Functions of the Human Skeleton

Movement
It plays a role in movement together with the muscles and joints.
Protection
It protects sensitive organs such as the heart, lungs and brain.
Support
It gives the body strength and shape.
Mineral storage
Bones store calcium and phosphates.
Hearing
There are 3 small bones found in the inner ear - they are known as the ossicles.
Their function is to transmit soundwaves from the middle ear to the inner ear.
Blood cell formation
White and red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow.

Structure of the Human Skeleton

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones.
It is divides into 2 main sections:
The axial skeleton
The appendicular skeleton
What is the axial skeleton?
The axial skeleton forms the central axis that keeps the body upright.
All of the other parts of the endoskeleton are attached to the axial skeleton.
It protects the brain, sense organs, spinal cord, heart and lungs.
The axial skeleton consists of:
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib Cage
What is the appendicular skeleton?
The appendicular skeleton is made up by the appendages of the body.
The appendicular skeleton consists of:
Pectoral girdle
Upper Limbs
Pelvic girdle
Lower limbs
The pectoral and pelvic girdles join the upper and lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
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 Diagram of the Human Skeleton

Eye Socket Skull

Teeth
Cervical Vertebrae
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum Humerus
Rib cage

Thoracic Vertebra
Radius
Lumbar Vertebrae Ulna
Illium
Carpals Sacrum
Metacarpals Coccyx
Phalanges Ischium
Pubis
Femur

Patella

Fibula
Tibia

Tarsals
Heel Bone Metatarsals
Phalanges

Practice Exercise
Unit 2
Question 2.1 - 2.3
Page 1.90

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 5

 Topic 3:
The Axial Skeleton
Key Concepts:
Skull, Vertebral Column and Rib Cage

Page 1.17 - 1.19

Skull
The structure of the skull:
The skull consists of 2 groups of bones:
The bones of the cranium
The facial bones.

Serrated
Sutures

Foramen
Magnum

FRONT OF SKULL SIDE OF SKULL BASE OF SKULL

(Anterior View) (Lateral View) (Ventral view)

The bones of the cranium:

The cranium consists of 8 flat bones that are immovably joined to each other with serrated sutures.
The cranium encloses the brain and protects it.
There is a large opening known as the foramen magnum at the base of the skull.
This allows the spinal cord to pass through from the base of the brain.
There are articulating surfaces on either side of the foramen magnum which articulate with the first
cervical vertebra - the atlas.
This articulating allows the head to turn.

Definition: Articulate means to move around at a joint.

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The facial bones
The facial part of the skull consists of 15 irregular bones that form the following:
Forehead
Cheeks
Nose
Temples
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
These bone are all immovable except for the lower jaw.
On the edge of the upper and lower jaw are teeth sockets.
An adult human has 32 permanent teeth arranged in a dental formula:
2.1.2.3 Upper jaw on the left hand side of the mouth
2.1.2.3 Lower jaw on the left hand side of the mouth

This formula indicates that one half of the upper jaw contains the following teeth:
2 incisors
1 canine
2 premolars
3 molars
The same number and type of teeth also occur in the corresponding half of the lower jaw.
Incisors

Canine
Premolars

Molars

Definition: A dental formula is the number, type and arrangement of the teeth of a specific animal.

Vertebral Column
The structure of the vertebral column:
The vertebral column consists of 33 bones known as the vertebrae.
The vertebrae are arranged on top of each other and are joined together by ligaments.
There are 5 different types of vertebrae:
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
5 sacral vertebrae
4 vertebrae that form the coccyx

The functions of the vertebral column:

It supports the skull
It surrounds and protects the spinal cord
It provides a place of attachment for the following:
Ribs of the axial skeleton
The pectoral girdle of the appendicular skeleton
The pelvic girdle of the appendicular skeleton
The muscles of the back

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 Atlas (C1) Atlas (C1)
Axis (C2) Axis (C2)

C7 C7
T1 T1

T12 T12
L1 L1

L5 L5

sacrum sacrum
(S1-S5)

Coccyx Coccyx

FRONT OF VERTEBRAL SIDE OF VERTEBRAL BACK OF VERTEBRAL

COLUMN COLUMN COLUMN
(Anterior View) (Lateral View) (Posterior view)

Basic Structure of Vertebra

All vertebrae have the same basic structure:
A vertebra consists of the following components which are needed for the attachment of muscles and
ligaments:
Centrum (body)
Neural arch
Processes (outgrowths)
The spinal canal (foramen) is formed between the neural arch and the centrum.
This canal surrounds and protects the spinal cord
It is connected to the foramen magnum in the skull.
There are 3 outgrowths which are visible:
Neural spine which protrudes towards the back and is angled slightly downwards
2 transverse processes which extend towards the sides
There are articular surfaces on the vertebra
Allow vertebra to articulate with the previous vertebra (above) and the successive vertebra (below)
Allow ribs to articulate with the thoracic vertebrae

Neural spine

Transverse process
Neural arch

Articular surfaces Spinal canal

Centrum

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The atlas and axis:
The first cervical vertebra is the atlas (C1). Atlas (C1)
It articulates with the skull.
It makes nodding movements of the head possible Odontoid process
The second cervical vertebra is the axis (C2).
It articulates with the atlas
It makes the rotation movement of the head possible. Axis (C2)

Additional characteristics of vertebrae:

There are fibrous cartilaginous discs found between consecutive vertebrae. C1-7
They prevent friction and absorb shock during movement.
Small openings are also found between consecutive vertebrae.
This is where spinal nerves enter and leave the spinal cord
The first 24 vertebrae are known as true vertebrae because they are separate bones.
The last 9 vertebrae are known as false vertebrae as they are fused into 2 groups: T1-12
The 5 sacral vertebrae fuse to form the sacrum
The last 4 vertebrae fuse to form the coccyx
The s-shape of the vertebral column is brought about by 4 curvatures:
Cervical vertebrae curve towards the front of the body L1-5
Thoracic vertebrae curve towards the back of the body
Lumbar vertebrae curve towards the front of the body
S1-5
Sacral vertebrae curve towards the back of the body
Back of Front of

Rib Cage
body body

The structure of the rib cage:

The rib cage consists of 3 different groups of bones:
12 thoracic vertebrae
12 pairs of ribs
The sternum
The sternum is a long, flat, dagger-shaped bone at the front of the rib cage.
The ribs are narrow, flat, arched bones.
The 12 pairs of ribs are attached to the back of the vertebral column.
The first 7 pairs are attached directly to the sternum in front by cartilage and are known as true ribs.
The next 3 pairs are attached to the preceding rib with cartilage and are known as false ribs.
The last 2 pairs are not attached to the sternum at all and are known as floating ribs.

Cartilage
Sternum
True ribs

Thoracic vertebra

Floating ribs False ribs

The functions of the rib cage:

It protects the organs in the thoracic cavity - the heart and lungs.
It plays a role in breathing because the movement of the rib cage increases and decreases the
volume of the thoracic cavity.
This allows the lungs to expand during inhalation and relax during exhalation
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 Topic 4:
The Appendicular Skeleton
Key Concepts:
Pectoral Girdle, Upper Limbs, Pelvic Girdle and Lower
Limbs
Page 1.20 - 1.21

Pectoral Girdle
The pectoral girdle consists of 2 groups of bones.
The 2 scapulae (shoulder blades) at the back.
The 2 clavicles (collar bones) at the front.

Clavicle
Glenoid cavity
Bony ridge

Scapula

Humerus

BACK OF PECTORAL GIRDLE

(Posterior View)

The scapula
A large, flat, triangular bone.
It a prominent ridge on the back which serves as a point of attachment for muscles.
This bone is not attached to the axial skeleton, but it slides over the back of the ribs.
The scapula has a shallow socket known as the glenoid cavity.
This is where the head of the humerus fits into a ball and socket joint.

The clavicle
An s-shaped bone that articulates with the scapula on one side and with the sternum on the other side.

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Upper Limbs
The upper limbs are made up of 6 different types of bones:
The humerus
The ulna
The radius
The carpals
The metacarpals
The phalanges

Clavicle
Shoulder joint

Scapula
Humerus

Elbow joint

Radius
Ulna

Carpals
Metacarpals

Phalanges

The humerus
A long bone that stretches from the pectoral girdle to the elbow.
It forms a ball and socket joint with the scapula.
At the elbow, it articulates with the bones of the forearm by a hinge joint.
The ulna
It is the longest and thinnest of two bones which make up the forearm.
It is found on the little finger (pinky finger) side of the forearm.
The ulna has a C-shaped articular facet that articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joint.
The radius
It is the shorter and slightly wider of two bones which make up the forearm.
It is found on the thumb side of the forearm.
The lower end of the radius is wider than the upper end and it articulates with the carpals to form the wrist
joint.
The carpals
Is a group of 8 small, short bones that are arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones each.
The metacarpals
Is a group of 5 bones that form the palm of the hand.
The phalanges
Form the fingers and consist of 14 bones:
2 in the thumb
3 in the index, middle, ring and pinky finger

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Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle consists of 2 hip bones that are joined in the middle by a semi-movable joint known as the
pubic symphysis.
The hip bones are made up of 3 fused bones:
The ilium
The ischium
The pubis (pubic bone)
There is a deep socket known as the acetabulum which the head of the femur fits into to form a ball and
socket joint.
At the back, the hip bones are attached to the sacrum.

Ilium

Sacrum

Acetabulum

Ischium
Pubis

Pubic symphysis

FEMALE PELVIS MALE PELVIS

(Anterior View) (Anterior View)

Lower Limbs
The lower limbs are made up of 7 different types of bones:
The femur
The patella (knee cap)
The tibia
The fibula
The tarsals
The metatarsals
The phalanges
Femoral head Pelvis

Femur

Patella

Fibula
Tibia

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
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The femur
The longest and largest bone in the human body.
The upper end of the femur articulates with the hip bone to form a ball and socket joint of the hip.
On the lower end of the femur, there are 2 articular condyles that articulate with the tibia to form the hinge
joint of the knee.
The patella (knee cap)
It is a flat, triangular bone that occurs in front of the femur and forms part of the knee joint.
The tibia
It is the largest of two bones which make up the lower leg.
The upper end has 2 articular condyles that articulate with the femur to form the hinge joint of the knee.
The lower end of the tibia articulates with one of the tarsals to form the ankle joint.
The fibula
It is the thinner of two bones which make up the lower leg.
It is situated slightly behind and on the outside of the tibia.
The lower end of the fibula is wider than the top and it articulates with the tarsals to form the ankle joint.
The tarsals
Is a group of 7 bones that form the ankle.
The largest of these bones, the calcaneum (heel bone), is found at the back.
The calf muscle attaches to the calcaneum.
The metatarsals
Is a group of 5 bones that form the arch of each foot.
The phalanges
Form the toes and consist of 14 bones:
2 in the big toes
3 in the index, middle, ring and pinky toe

Practice Exercise
Unit 2
Question 2.4 - 2.5
Question 3 - 5
Question 6.1 - 6.2
Page 1.90 - 1.91

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 Topic 5:
Structure of a Long Bone
Key Concepts:
Identifying Parts of a Long Bone as well as their
Importance
Page 1.22

Structure of a Long Bone

Head Hyaline cartilage
(Epiphysis) Lines the epiphyses (heads) of long bones, forming
articulating surfaces for contact with other bones.
Thicker part
on top end Spongy bone
Has red marrow which produces erythrocytes (red blood
cells) and leucocytes (white blood cells)

Marrow cavity
A longitudinal cavity in the shaft of the long bone which is
surrounded by compact bone.
Compact bone
Endosteum
Shaft A thin, soft membrane which lines the marrow cavity.
(Diaphysis)
Yellow marrow
Long, A fluid found in the marrow cavity which contains many fat
cylindrical cells and leucocytes (white blood cells).
middle part
Periosteum
A strong, tough membrane which surrounds the long bone

Head
(Epiphysis)
Thicker part
on bottom
end

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 Topic 6:
Tissues
Key Concepts:
Bone, Cartilage, Tendons and Ligaments
Page 1.22

Bone
The endoskeleton of humans mainly consists of bone which is a living tissue.
There are 2 different types of bone tissue:
Compact bone
Spongy bone
Compact bone
Consists of hard, dense bone tissue.
It forms the surface of bones and the shafts of long bones.
Compact bones provide strength and support to the skeleton.
Spongy bone
Consists of softer, lighter bone tissue.
It forms the heads of long bones.
It contains red marrow which produces 2 types of blood cells:
Erythrocytes - red blood cells
Leucocytes - white blood cells
Spongy bone exerts resistance on any forces which act on bones such as:
The force exerted by muscles during movement.
Trauma exerted to bone during a fall or collision.

Cartilage
Cartilage also forms part of the human endoskeleton.
Unlike bone which is very hard and strong, cartilage is a Muscle
semi-transparent, tough, elastic connective tissue.

Tendons Tendon
Tendons consist of inelastic, white, fibrous connective tissue that
attaches muscle to bone.
The inelastic nature of tendons is essential because:
It makes it possible for the contraction and relaxation of the Ligament
Joint
muscles to be transferred to the bone which is attached to the Ligament
tendon - this facilitates movement.

Ligaments
Bone

Ligaments consist of tough, yellow, elastic connective tissue that

attaches bone to bone.
Ligaments stretch only enough to control the movement in a joint.
They hold the bones in a joint in position and which stabilises the joint.
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 Topic 7:
Joints
Key Concepts:
Classification of Joints, Structure of a Synovial Joint, Classification
of Synovial Joints, X-rays of Human Bones and Joints

Page 1.22 - 1.24

Definition: A joint is a junction in the skeleton where two or more bones meet and are joined by ligaments
or cartilage.

Classification of Joints
A joint is classified according to the degree of movement that it permits.
Joints can be classified into 3 classes:
Immovable joints
Semi-movable joints
Freely moveable joints
Immovable joints:
These joints do not allow any movement.
An example of this kind of joint is the serrated sutures between the flat bones of the cranium.
Semi-movable joints:
These joints allow a slight degree of movement.
An example of this kind of joint is the joints between the vertebrae as well as the pubic symphysis between
the 2 pubic bones in the pelvic girdle.
Freely movable joints:
These joints allow free movement

Structure of a Synovial Joint

In a synovial joint the ends of the 2 bones forming the joint are covered with a layer of hyaline cartilage.
This cartilage allows bones to move smoothly past each other.
The whole joint is enclosed by a sac made up of a ligament known as the joint capsule.
This capsule is lined with a membrane known as the synovial membrane.
The membrane secretes a fluid known as synovial fluid which prevents friction in the joint.
In some synovial joints there are also ligaments that attach the 2 bones of the joint to each other.
There are 4 different types of synovial joints:
Ball and socket joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Gliding joint

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 Yellow marrow

Bone

Synovial membrane

Hyaline cartilage
Synovial cavity with synovial fluid

Joint capsule

Bone

Yellow marrow

Classification of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are classified according to the type of movement that takes place at the joint
Ball and socket joint:
In this joint the head of one bone fits into the socket of another.
It allows movement in any direction.
Examples include the shoulder joint and the hip joint.

Scapula

Humerus

Hinge joints:
These joints allow of movement in only one plane.
Examples include the elbow joint and the knee joint.

Humerus

Radius

Ulna

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Pivot joint:
In this joint one bone rotates around another.
An example is the atlas (C1) rotating around the bone projection (odontoid process) of the axis (C2).
This makes the movement of turning the head possible.

Odontoid process

Atlas

Axis

Gliding joints:
In this joint the flat articular surface of one bone slides over another.
Examples include the bones of the wrist joint and the the bones of the ankle joint.

Metacarpals

Carpals

X-rays of Human Bones and Joints

X-ray photos of bones are usually used by doctors to diagnose bone fractures and dislocation of joints.

FRACTURED ELBOW FRACTURED ULNA AND FRACTURED FEMUR

RADIUS

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 Topic 8:
Skeletal Muscles
Key Concepts:
Characteristics, Antagonistic Muscles, Structure,
Contraction
Page 1.24 - 1.26

Definition: Skeletal muscles are muscles that are attached to the skeleton to bring about movement of
parts of the body by contraction and relaxation.

Characteristics of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton by inelastic tendons.
They have dark and light bands which give these muscles a striated appearance.
They are therefore known as striated muscles.
Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control.
They are therefore known as voluntary muscles.

Antagonistic Muscles
Skeletal muscles are arranged in pairs so that one contracts while the other relaxes.
These muscles are therefore known as antagonistic muscles.
When one of the antagonistic muscles in the pair contracts and the other one relaxes, a controlled
movement is brought about.
To reverse this movement, the contracted muscle must relax and the relaxed muscle must now contract.

A good example of antagonistic muscle action in the human body are the biceps and triceps

Biceps contracted, Triceps contracted,

triceps relaxed biceps relaxed
(extended)

Biceps Biceps

Triceps
Triceps
Tendon Tendon
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 The biceps is situated to the front of the upper arm.
At one end, the biceps is attached to the pectoral girdle by two tendons.
At the other end, the biceps is attached to the radius by one tendon.
The antagonist of the biceps is the triceps which occurs at the back of the upper arm.
At one end, the triceps is attached to the pectoral girdle by three tendons.
At the other end, the triceps is attached to the ulna by one tendon.
When the biceps contracts and the triceps relaxes, the elbow joint bends and the forearm is lifted.
When the triceps contracts and the biceps relaxes, the elbow joint extends and the forearm is lowered.
The biceps is known as a flexor muscle and the triceps is known as the extensor muscle.
An easy way to remember how many tendons attach the biceps and triceps to the pectoral girdle is:
Biceps - 'bi' means two so there are two tendons attaching the biceps to the pectoral girdle.
Triceps - 'tri' means three so there are three tendons attaching the triceps to the pectoral girdle.

Structure of Skeletal Muscles

Each skeletal muscle is an organ that consists of various integrated tissues.
These tissues include the skeletal muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue.
Each skeletal muscle has three layers of connective tissue called mysia.
The mysia enclose the skeletal muscle, provide structure to the muscle, and compartmentalize the
muscle fibers within the muscle.
The mysia are the epimysium, perimysium and endomysium.

Epimysium:
Each muscle is wrapped in a sheath of dense, irregular connective tissue called the epimysium.
The epimysium allows a muscle to contract and move powerfully while maintaining its structural integrity.
This layer of connective tissue also separates muscle from other tissues and organs in the area, allowing
the muscle to move independently.

Perimysium:
Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles, called fascicles.
The fascicles are surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue called the perimysium.

Endomysium:
Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue layer of collagen and
reticular fibers called the endomysium.

Sarcolemma
Perimysium
Muscle fibre

Tendon Epimysium Fascicle Myofibril

Motor neuron
Deep Fascia

Blood vessel

Blood Vessels Endomysium

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 The muscle fibre:
A single muscle fibre is enclosed by a membrane known as the sarcolemma.
The muscle fibre consists of the following:
Sarcoplasm - the cytoplasm like medium
Many oval nuclei
Mitochondria - provide energy by cellular respiration

Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Sarcolemma
Light band

Myofibril
Sarcoplasm

Dark band

The myofibril:
Each muscle fibre consists of thousands of myofibrils.
Myofibrils consist of two types of protein filaments:
Myosin - thicker and appear darker
Actin - thinner and appear lighter
Myosin and actin filaments overlap in certain areas.
The regions consisting only of actin filaments appear as light bands.
The regions consisting of actin filaments and myosin filaments appear as dark bands.
These alternating dark and light bands give the skeletal muscle its striated appearance.
The light bands are bisected by a line known as the Z-line
The region between two Z-lines is known as the sarcomere.
The sarcomere is the functional unit of a muscle as it causes the muscle to contract.

Thin actin filament Sarcomere Thick myosin filament

(green) (purple)

Z-line Light Dark band Light

band band

sarcomeres of
skeletal muscle muscular bundles muscle fibres myofibrils
actin and myosin

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Contraction of Skeletal Muscles
There are nerve fibres which enter the sarcolemma of each muscle fibre.
They transmit nerve impulses that cause contraction or relaxation of the muscle.
During contraction:
The thin actin filaments slide past the thicker myosin filaments - they do not shorten!
There is more overlap of actin and myosin during contraction.
The Z-lines move closer to each other which shortens the sarcomere.
The shortened sarcomere leads to the shortening of the myofibrils, the muscle fibres and eventually the
whole muscle.
Therefore the muscle contracts.
Thin actin Thick myosin
Z-line filament filament Z-line

Light band Dark band Light band

Relaxed sarcomere

Thin actin Thick myosin

Z-line filament filament Z-line

Light band Dark band Light band

Contracted sarcomere

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 Topic 9:
Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System
Key Concepts:
Osteoporosis and Arthritis
Page 1.26 - 1.27

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of the bones that is characterised by a decrease in bone density.
Bones become porous and less dense due to a shortage of calcium.
This leads to weakened bones which greatly increase the risk of a fracture of the hips, spine and wrists.
Osteoporosis is more common in older women.
This is due to hormone changes that happen in menopause, specifically the hormone oestrogen.
The female hormone oestrogen is essential for healthy bones.
Visible signs of osteoporosis include:
A curved back.
A decrease in height.

Arthritis
Arthritis is a disease that causes severe pain and a loss of movement in the joints.
The word arthritis literally means inflammation in the joints.
arthro - joint
itis - inflammation
Inflammation is the reaction of the body's immune system to an injury or to the presence of pathogens.
Causes swelling, pain and loss of movement in affected areas.
There are two types of arthritis:
Osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Osteoarthritis:
A disease where the cartilage that forms part of the joint ages and disintegrates with time.
The bones in the joint grind against each other and cause inflammation.
Osteoarthritis commonly occurs in the hips, knees, feet, fingers and spine.
Rheumatoid arthritis:
In this type of arthritis the synovial membranes in the joints thicken and produce too much synovial fluid
which causes inflammation.
This is an autoimmune disease where the body's immune system attacks its own tissues - cartilage,
ligaments, bones and tendons.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 23

 Topic 10:
Injuries of the Musculoskeletal System
Key Concepts:
Sprains, Strains, Cramps and Dislocations
Page 1.27 - 1.28

Sprains
Spraining is the stretching or tearing of one or more ligaments.
This is often due to sudden twisting or stretching in a joint.
This causes bruising, swelling and pain that limits the movement of the joints.

Strains
Straining is when a muscle or tendon is over-stretched or torn.
Straining can cause pain, weakness and muscular spasms.
A strain is therefore referred to as pulling a muscle.
How are sprains and strains treated?
Sprains and strains are treated with RICE.
Rest - prevents further injury and gives the body time to recover
Ice - the cold reduces pain by numbing the affected area
Compression - pressure to help prevent or reduce swelling
Elevation - reduces swelling and bruising by making it more difficult for blood to reach the site of injury

Cramps
Cramps develop when a muscle contracts suddenly and painfully.
It may not relax for a prolonged period of time.
These involuntary muscular spasms may be caused by a variety of factors:
An imbalance of minerals such as sodium or potassium
Cold
Poor blood circulation
Dehydration
Medication
Awkward positioning of the body

Dislocations
A dislocation occurs when a ligament is exposed to a sudden impact and the bones forming the joint are
separated from each other.
The bones are moved out of their normal position and require medical intervention
to return them to position.
Practice Exercise
Unit 2
Question 7 - 11
Page 1.91 - 1.93

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 24