Unit-1:Co-Channel Reuse Ratio, Signal-to-

Interference Ratio, and Design Trade-offs

 Co-Channel Reuse Ratio (Q) and its Implication:
Q links to hexagonal cluster size: Q= = √(𝟑𝑵), N
𝐃

𝐑
represents the cluster size.
 Different Q values influence the spatial distribution
of co-channel cells.

• A small value of Q provides larger capacity since

the cluster size N is small,
• whereas a large value of Q improves the
transmission quality, due to a smaller level of co-
channel interference.
A trade-off must be made between these two objectives in actual cellular
design.
“R” is Radius of Cell & “D” Distance between Nearest
Co-Channel Cells
Unit-1:Co-Channel Reuse Ratio, Signal-to-
Interference Ratio, and Design Trade-offs
 Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-
to-interference ratio (S / I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors
a forward channel can be expressed as:

 Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the

average received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of
the distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver. The
average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by:
 where Po is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far
field region of the antenna at a small distanæ do from the transmitting
antenna, and n is he path loss exponent.
 Unit-1:Channel Assignment Strategy
Efficient radio spectrum use is essential for capacity increase and interference
reduction.
To achieve these goals, a well-designed frequency reuse scheme is crucial.
Various channel assignment strategies have been developed to align with these
objectives.
These strategies can be broadly classified into two categories:
Fixed
Dynamic
The choice of channel assignment strategy has a significant impact
on the overall system performance.
Moreover, the selected strategy affects how mobile user calls are managed
during handoffs.
 Unit-1:Fixed Channel Assignment and Borrowing Strategy for
Enhanced Capacity
Fixed Channel Assignment approach
In this approach, each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channels.
Whenever a call attempt occurs, it can only be accommodated on
channels available within the cell.
However, a challenge arises if all channels within a cell are occupied—
calls are then blocked, leading to service denial for subscribers.
To address this, a borrowing strategy has been devised as an
extension of fixed assignment.
Through this strategy, a cell facing channel exhaustion can borrow
channels from its neighboring cell.
Notably, the borrowing process is closely supervised by the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC) to ensure minimal disruption to ongoing calls
in both the borrowing and donor cells.
Unit-1:Dynamic Channel Assignment
Dynamic Strategy Overview:
Voice channels not permanently assigned to specific cells.
Call requests prompt base station to request channel from MSC.
MSC allocates channels using an algorithm considering factors like blocking
likelihood, frequency use, reuse distance, and cost functions.
Allocation Considerations:
MSC allocates frequency if not in use within cell or nearby cells within
minimum reuse distance.
Aims to prevent co-channel interference and optimize frequency usage.
Benefits and Capacity Enhancement:
Reduced likelihood of call blocking.
Increases trunking capacity as all available channels accessible to all cells.
MSC Management:
Dynamic strategy requires active frequency management by the MSC.
Channels allocated based on real-time demand and network conditions.
Unit-1:Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting Overview
 Increasing in demand
 Addressing the issue of
capacity constraints leading
to network congestion.
Coverage Enhancement: Cell splitting leads to
increased coverage and capacity.
Increased Capacity: By dividing large cells into
smaller ones, the number of channels and
overall capacity can grow.
 Increases the capacity of the channel
considerably.
 Enhances dependability of cellular networks.
 Increases the frequency reuse factor.
 Increases signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.
Reduces Interference Objective: Enhancing
network capacity without disrupting the
required channel allocation.
Unit-1:Cell Splitting
Cell Size Reduction Requirement:
When creating smaller cells, their transmit power needs adjustment.
Transmit Power Calculation:
For new cells with half the radius of the original cells, examine received
power (Pr) at boundaries.
Equating Received Power:
Setting received power at new and old cell boundaries equal ensures
consistent frequency reuse plan.
Maintaining Frequency Reuse:
Crucial for new microcells to follow the same frequency reuse behavior as
the original cells.
Unit-1:Cell Splitting
Small cells are low-cost and low-powered radio base stations that complement
the primary cellular network of a mobile operator by providing targeted
indoor and outdoor coverage to customers in smaller locations like homes,
offices, shopping malls, train stations etc.
There are different types of small cells depending on the range, power
consumption, form factor and use cases. The smallest type of small cell is a
femtocell which is for indoor use, whereas the slightly larger type is called a
pico cell, for indoor and outdoor use in urban and rural areas.
Among all small cells,
 Femtocells have the shortest range, a radius of up to 10 meters.
 Picocells have a slightly longer range and cover a radius of up to 200 meters,
 Whereas microcells can cover a radius of up to 2 kilometers.
 Regular cells in mobile networks are called microcells that cover tens of kilometers.
Femtocells are the simplest and most user-friendly small cells that simply
require a power supply and internet connectivity to start working. The
internet acts as a backhaul connection that connects a femtocell to the rest of
the mobile network for providing indoor coverage within a home or small
office.
Unit-1:Cell Splitting
A wireless channel is the medium between two endpoints of a communication
system. A radio frequency (RF) channel is a band of RF used for wireless
communication. Each IEEE wireless standard specifies the channels that can be
used. For example, the 802.11a standard specifies radio frequency ranges
between 5.15 and 5.875GHz.
Radio communication is the transmission of information through space using
radio waves. Wireless communication is also referred to as unguided media or
unbounded transmission media. In this mode, no physical medium is required
for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
 Some types of wireless communication include:
 Infrared communication
 Radiofrequency communication
 Microwave communication
 Wi-Fi communication
 Bluetooth communication
 Zigbee wireless technology communication
 GPS communication
 Cellular radio communication
Unit-1:Free Space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model has no enforced frequency range. It
assumes line-of-sight conditions, and disregards terrain, the curvature
of the Earth, and other obstacles.

The free space propagation model is used to predict the strength of a

signal when a transmitter and receiver have a clear line-of-sight path
between them. The model assumes that the transmitter and receiver are
located in an empty environment, with no obstacles or reflecting
surfaces. The model also ignores the influence of the earth's surface.
The free space propagation model is the simplest scenario for the
propagation of radio signals. It is used in satellite communication
systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links.
Free Space Path Loss
∗ ∗ ∗
•
FSPL is the free space path loss in decibels (dB).
d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver in meters (m).
f is the frequency of the signal in hertz (Hz).
c is the speed of light in meters per second (approximately
m/sec).
Unit-1:Fading
Fading is a phenomenon in wireless communication where the strength
and quality of a radio signal fluctuates over time and distance.
Fading is caused by a variety of factors, including:
Multipath propagation
Atmospheric conditions
The movement of objects in the transmission path
Fading is the weakening of a transmitted signal due to the properties or
characteristics of a communication channel. Fading can be frequency-
selective, meaning different frequency components of a single
transmitted signal can undergo different amounts of fading.
Fading is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a
communication channel that experiences fading.
Unit-1:Fading
Multipath Propagation: When a signal travels from a transmitter to a
receiver, it can take multiple paths due to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering. These multiple paths result in different copies of the signal
arriving at the receiver with different delays, phases, and amplitudes.
When these copies combine at the receiver, they can either reinforce or
cancel each other, causing signal strength variations.

Shadowing: Obstacles such as buildings, trees, or terrain can block or

attenuate the wireless signal. As a mobile device moves, it can enter and
exit areas where the signal is blocked or attenuated, leading to signal
strength fluctuations.

Doppler Effect: When a mobile device is in motion relative to the

transmitter, the frequency of the received signal can shift due to the
Doppler effect. This shift can cause phase changes in the signal, leading
to fading.
Unit-1:Fading
Fading can result in temporary signal degradation,
which can affect communication quality and data
rates. To mitigate the effects of fading, various
techniques are used in wireless communication, that
includes
Error-correcting codes,
Diversity reception, and
Adaptive modulation and coding schemes.
These techniques help improve the reliability and
performance of wireless communication systems in the
presence of fading.
Unit-1:Fading
Small-Scale Fading:

Causes: Small-scale fading is primarily caused by multipath propagation, where signals

take multiple paths to reach the receiver due to reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
These multiple paths result in constructive and destructive interference, leading to
rapid variations in signal strength, phase, and frequency.

Characteristics: Small-scale fading is characterized by rapid fluctuations in signal

strength and phase over short distances or short time intervals. These fluctuations can
cause fading dips (deep signal nulls) and peaks (strong signal spikes) in the received
signal.

Frequency Range: Small-scale fading occurs across a wide range of frequencies and is
typically associated with the effects of multipath propagation in urban and indoor
environments.

Mitigation Techniques: To mitigate small-scale fading, techniques such as diversity

reception (e.g., spatial diversity, frequency diversity) and adaptive modulation and
coding are employed to improve signal reliability and quality.
Unit-1:Fading
Small-Scale Fading:

Rayleigh Fading: Rayleigh fading is often used to model the effects of

multipath propagation in urban and indoor environments. It assumes that
the amplitude and phase of the received signal follow a Rayleigh distribution,
which means that the signal experiences random variations in both
amplitude and phase.
Rician Fading: Rician fading, also known as Ricean fading, is used to
model scenarios where a dominant line-of-sight (LOS) signal component
exists in addition to scattered multipath signals. It assumes that the LOS
component has a constant amplitude, while the scattered signals experience
Rayleigh fading.
Nakagami Fading: Nakagami fading is a generalized fading model that
includes both Rayleigh and Rician fading as special cases. It is characterized
by a Nakagami parameter (m), which determines the severity of fading. When
m is large, Nakagami fading approaches a non-fading (line-of-sight) scenario,
while smaller values of m represent more severe fading conditions.
Unit-1:Fading
Small-Scale Fading:

Rayleigh Fading: Rayleigh fading is often used to model the effects of

multipath propagation in urban and indoor environments. It assumes that
the amplitude and phase of the received signal follow a Rayleigh distribution,
which means that the signal experiences random variations in both
amplitude and phase.
Rician Fading: Rician fading, also known as Ricean fading, is used to
model scenarios where a dominant line-of-sight (LOS) signal component
exists in addition to scattered multipath signals. It assumes that the LOS
component has a constant amplitude, while the scattered signals experience
Rayleigh fading.
Nakagami Fading: Nakagami fading is a generalized fading model that
includes both Rayleigh and Rician fading as special cases. It is characterized
by a Nakagami parameter (m), which determines the severity of fading. When
m is large, Nakagami fading approaches a non-fading (line-of-sight) scenario,
while smaller values of m represent more severe fading conditions.
Unit-1:Fading
Small-Scale Fading:

Rayleigh Fading: Rayleigh fading is often used to model the effects of

multipath propagation in urban and indoor environments. It assumes that
the amplitude and phase of the received signal follow a Rayleigh distribution,
which means that the signal experiences random variations in both
amplitude and phase.
Rician Fading: Rician fading, also known as Ricean fading, is used to
model scenarios where a dominant line-of-sight (LOS) signal component
exists in addition to scattered multipath signals. It assumes that the LOS
component has a constant amplitude, while the scattered signals experience
Rayleigh fading.
Nakagami Fading: Nakagami fading is a generalized fading model that
includes both Rayleigh and Rician fading as special cases. It is characterized
by a Nakagami parameter (m), which determines the severity of fading. When
m is large, Nakagami fading approaches a non-fading (line-of-sight) scenario,
while smaller values of m represent more severe fading conditions.
Unit-1:Fading
Small-Scale Fading:

Rayleigh Fading: Rayleigh fading is often used to model the effects of

multipath propagation in urban and indoor environments. It assumes that
the amplitude and phase of the received signal follow a Rayleigh distribution,
which means that the signal experiences random variations in both
amplitude and phase.
Rician Fading: Rician fading, also known as Ricean fading, is used to
model scenarios where a dominant line-of-sight (LOS) signal component
exists in addition to scattered multipath signals. It assumes that the LOS
component has a constant amplitude, while the scattered signals experience
Rayleigh fading.
Nakagami Fading: Nakagami fading is a generalized fading model that
includes both Rayleigh and Rician fading as special cases. It is characterized
by a Nakagami parameter (m), which determines the severity of fading. When
m is large, Nakagami fading approaches a non-fading (line-of-sight) scenario,
while smaller values of m represent more severe fading conditions.
Unit-1:Nakagami Fading
Unit-1:Nakagami Fading
Unit-1:Nakagami Fading


Unit-1:Nakagami Fading
Unit-1:Nakagami Fading
Ω parameter: It is the average power of the received signal.

Where E is expectation / mean

R is the received signal amplitude

Its’ Impact on the Probability Density Function (PDF)

• A higher value of Ω would result in a PDF that is more shifted
towards higher signal strengths, indicating a better signal
reception on average,
• while a lower Ω indicates a weaker average signal strength,
showcasing a more severe fading environment.
Unit-1:Okumura-Hata model
The Okumura-Hata model is a radio propagation model
that predicts path loss for cellular transmissions in
urban areas.
It considers the effects of diffraction, reflection, and
scattering caused by city structures.
The Okumura-Hata model is based on data from the
Okumura model.
The Okumura model is used to find path loss in the
frequency range of 150MHz to 1920 MHz.
The Okumura-Hata model was developed by Yoshihisa
Okumura to analyze radio wave propagation for mobile
and cellular networks.
Unit-1:Okumura-Hata model
The Okumura-Hata model describes radio wave
propagation characteristics in various environments,
including:
a. Open spaces
b. Suburbs: Residential Area (Part of larger city)
c. Urban Areas
d. Sub-urban Areas
1. The model was developed in 1986 when Okumura
traveled around Tokyo city and measured the signal
attenuation from base station to mobile station.
2. He produced a set of curves that gave the median
attenuation relative to free space path loss
Unit-1:Okumura-Hata model
 𝑳 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟐𝟔. 𝟏𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇 − 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒉𝒃 − 𝒂 𝒉𝒓 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗 − 𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒉𝒃 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒅
 Where
𝒂(𝒉𝒓 ) = (𝟏. 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝒇) − 𝟎. 𝟕)𝒉𝒓 − (𝟏. 𝟓𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝒇) − 𝟎. 𝟖)
Unit-1:Okumura-Hata model
 𝑳 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟐𝟔. 𝟏𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇 − 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒉𝒃 − 𝒂 𝒉𝒓 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗 − 𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒉𝒃 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒅
 Where,
𝒂(𝒉𝒓) = (𝟏. 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝒇) − 𝟎. 𝟕)𝒉𝒓 − (𝟏. 𝟓𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝒇) − 𝟎. 𝟖)

“L” is the total path loss in dB.

“f” is the frequency in MHz (typically between 150 to 1500 MHz).

“hb” is the height of the base station antenna in meters (usually between 30 to 200 meters).

“hr” is the height of the mobile antenna in meters (typically between 1 to 10 meters)

“d” is the distance between the base station and the mobile station in kilometers.

“a(hr)” is a correction factor based on the height of the mobile antenna and the frequency.
Unit-1:Channel Modelling

Channel Modelling

Channel modelling is a mathematical representation of the physical wireless communication

channel.

It captures the effects of various phenomena like reflection, refraction, diffraction, and

scattering that the transmitted signal undergoes as it travels from the transmitter to the

receiver.

Accurate channel models are crucial for designing and analyzing the performance of

wireless communication systems.

Unit-1:Stochastic models
These models are probabilistic models that account for the random nature of the wireless channel.

• Stochastic modelling captures the randomness: (Unpredictability of the environment (e.g., moving objects,

atmospheric conditions, changing topologies), the channel's response can't always be deterministically

defined).

• Rayleigh and Rician Fading: These are common stochastic models. Rayleigh fading is used when there's no

dominant propagation along a line of sight between the transmitter and receiver, while Rician fading is

used when there is a dominant line of sight path.

• Statistical Properties: Stochastic models often describe the channel in terms of statistical properties like

mean, variance, autocorrelation, and power spectral density.

Unit-1:Flat Fading
Flat fading, is also known as frequency-nonselective fading, describes a scenario where all frequency
components of a transmitted signal undergo the same magnitude of fading.

This means the channel has a constant response over the bandwidth of interest.

In flat fading:

Bandwidth: The coherence bandwidth of the channel (over which the channel's response is fairly constant) is
greater than the bandwidth of the signal.

Impact: In flat fading, the entire signal might fade at once, which can lead to periods of time where the
received signal is very weak or non-existent.

Causes: It's caused by multipath propagation where all the multiple paths have a delay spread smaller than
the symbol period of the transmitted signal.
Unit-1:Multipath & Delay Spread
Multipath Propagation:

When a wireless signal is transmitted, it often doesn't travel via a single path from the transmitter to the receiver.
Instead, due to reflections, refractions, diffractions, and scatterings from various obstacles (like buildings, trees,
vehicles, etc.), the signal can take multiple paths of different lengths. As a result, multiple versions of the signal, each
having traveled a different distance, arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. This phenomenon is referred to
as multipath propagation.

Delay Spread:

• It is a metric that quantifies the dispersion of these multipath signals.

• Specifically, it is the time difference between the arrival of the earliest (often the line-
of-sight) multipath component and the last detectable multipath component.
Unit-1:Significance of Delay Spread
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI): If the delay spread is large relative to the symbol period of the transmitted signal, then
the delayed versions of one symbol can interfere with subsequent symbols. This is called inter-symbol interference, and
it can severely degrade the performance of a wireless communication system.

 Coherence Bandwidth: The delay spread is inversely related to the coherence bandwidth of the channel. If the delay
spread is large, the coherence bandwidth is small, and vice versa. A signal with a bandwidth greater than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel will experience frequency-selective fading. Conversely, if the signal's bandwidth is much less
than the coherence bandwidth, it will undergo flat fading.

 Channel Equalization: The presence of a significant delay spread necessitates the use of channel equalization techniques
at the receiver to mitigate the effects of ISI.
Unit-1:Mean Delay Spread
Mean Delay Spread:
The mean delay of the multipath components is given by:

∑ 𝝉𝒊 𝐏 𝝉𝒊
 mean ∑ 𝐏 𝝉𝒊 𝒊 is the delay of the i-th multipath component.

𝑷(𝝉𝒊 ) is the power of the ith multipath component.

The mean excess delay is then the difference between the mean delay and the delay of
the first arriving path:

𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝟎

Unit-1:RMS Delay Spread:
The RMS delay spread is a measure of the spread of the multipath
components around the mean delay. It's given by:

mean
RMS
Unit-1:RMS Delay Spread:
The RMS delay spread is a measure of the spread of the
multipath components around the mean delay. It's given by:

mean
RMS