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Introduction to
Biological
Sciences
UNIT I

Prepared by:
Ms. Camille Yvonne D. Cubar

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Content
• Definition of Biology
• Scientific Method
• Advances in Biotechnology
• Subfields of Biology
WHAT IS BIOLOGY? • Specific Fields of Biology
CHAPTER 1
• Characteristics of Life
• Hierarchical Level of Biology
• Evolution

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BIOLOGY
the study of any life forms and seeks and provides
answers to questions about living organism

HOW IS BIOLOGY
STUDIED?
Concept 1.1

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Observation
• Formulating a Problem
• Gathering Information
• Hypothesis formation
• Experimentation
• Data gathering or results
• Data Analysis, Interpretation and Conclusion
• Scientific Verification
• Publication and Application

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What Is Biotechnology and What Does It

Mean to You?
• Biotechnology – using living organisms, or the products of
living organisms, for human benefit to make a product or
solve a problem
ADVANCES IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Concept 1.2

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Examples
• Historical
• Fermentation
• Selective breeding
• Use of antibiotics

• Modern
• Gene cloning
• Genetic engineering
• Recombinant DNA technology
• Human Genome Project

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Morphology Anatomy
(ana – separate; tomy – cut)
(morpho – form) – study of organism based on
– study of organism based on its form, dissection
shape, structure as a whole

SUBFIELDS OF BIOLOGY
Concept 1.3

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Embryology Ontogeny
Cytology Histology (embryo – swell) (on – being; genesis – origin)
(kytos – a hollow compartment) (histo – tissue) – science of the origin and development of – development of the individual, as
– study of cell structure and function – the study of tissue the organism from fertilization of the distinguished from phylogeny, which is
oocyte to all subsequent states up to birth evolutionary development of the species

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Genetics Physiology Nutrition Biochemistry

(genesis – origin)
– Study of the performance of complex – a function of living plants and animals, – study of chemical composition of
– the study of heredity and variation
metabolic functions consisting in the taking in and metabolism of organism
food material whereby tissue is built up and
energy liberated.

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Biogeography Ecology
Paleontology Phylogeny – refers to the distribution of organism on –concerned with interrelationships among
(paleo – ancient; onto – being) (phylon – race; gen – become) space or earth surface living organisms, encompassing the
-The science in dealing of life in prehistoric – the evolutionary development of species, relations of organisms to each other, to the
times as revealed by the fossils as distinguished from ontogeny, environment, and to the energy balance
development of the individual. within a given ecosystem.

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Microbiology Taxonomy Evolution

(e – out; volvo – roll)
– study of microorganism – organism that – is the study of classification and
cannot be seen by the naked eye nomenclature of the organism - refers to change over long periods of time

NORTH
AMERICA
Sugar
glider

AUSTRALIA

Flying
squirrel

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Protozoology Entomology
- study of protozoans
– study of insects
Ex. Amoeba, Euglena
Ex. Butterfly, Mosquitoes

SPECIFIC FIELD OF
BIOLOGY
Concept 1.4

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Ichthyology Helminthology
Conchology – study of fishes – study of worms
Malacology
– study of shell Ex. Bangus, Sharks Ex. Ascaris (bituk); Pinworm (kigwa)
– study of soft bodied organism
Ex. Shells of snail, clams Ex. Snail, Squid, Octopus

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Ornithology Mammalogy Bacteriology Mycology

– study of birds –study of mammals
– study of bacteria – study of fungi
Ex. Parrot, Eagle, Owl, Crane, Finch Ex. Human, pig, cows, bats
Ex. Staphylococcus; Bacillus Ex. Mushroom, Penicillium

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Phycology Herpetology
Pteridology Bryology – study of algae – study of reptiles and amphibians
– study of fern – study of mosses and Ex. Eucheuma (guso); Ex. Frogs, Snakes, Turtles,
liverworts Caulerpa (lato) Lizards

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Life
Characteristics a state of existence characterized by the total of bodily
activities or function of an organism. This includes
metabolism, growth, reproduction, adaptation and
of Life response to the stimuli

Concept 1.4

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Energy Utilization (Metabolism) – The sum of all chemical and

physical changes occurring in the body of an individual
Organization
• Anabolism
An arrangement of distinct but mutually dependent
(Ex. Synthesis of protein from amino acids; Starch from
parts glucose)
• Catabolism
(Ex. Degradation of proteins into amino acids)

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Growth – The increase in size or number of living being or any of Development – The act or process of natural
its parts occurring in the process of development. progression in physical and psychological maturation
from embryonic state to a complex adult stage.
Reproduction – The ability of the organism produce offspring of
the same kind

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Adaptation
– An advantageous change of an organism (structure, function,
behavior) to enhance the ability to survive in the environment
Response to the Environment (Irritability)
– Monitors or react to changes in the body; the ability of the Evolution
organism to respond to the stimulus – A continuing process of change from one state, condition. This
change occurs through time.
Stimulus – a factor in the environment which can elicit response of an
organism.

Homeostasis – maintains stable internal condition.

Ex. Regulation of temperature; Regulation of blood sugar.

Movement – Change in position of location

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Differentiation – Changes of structure to specialized one Differences between living and non-living
Coordination– Harmonious function of interrelated structures Process Living Non – Living

Metabolic Nutrient uptake and processing Absent

Regulation – Control of the rate of process
Waste elimination
Digestion – Mechanical, chemical, enzymatic process to convert
Generative Growth and Reproduction Absent
complex food substance
Responsiveness Irritability Absent
Survival Instinct (Adaptation and
Excretion – Process of eliminating waste product.
Evolution

Control Coordination and Regulation Absent

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Differences between Plants and Animals

Characteristic Plants Animals
Mode of Nourishment Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Extent of Growth Indeterminate Determinate

Cell Wall Present (Cellulose) Absent
Nervous System Absent Present
Mobility Mostly immobile (sessile) Mobile
Primary Food Reserve Starch Glycogen

Waste Products Oxygen Carbon dioxide and Nitrogenous

waste
Levels of Organization of Living Organism
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Theories on the Origin of Life (where does life

come from)
• Divine or Special Creation Theory
– “God created life”
• Abiogenesis or Spontaneous generation theory
– “ Life generates from non-living things”
• Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory (Panspermia)
- “ Life originate from outer planets”
• Philosophical Theory of Eternity EVOLUTION
– “Life has no beginning and no end” (reincarnation)
Concept 1.5
• Marine Theory
– “Life originated from the water (sea)”
• Naturalistic or Evolutionary or Physico-chemical Theory
– “Life originated from result of chain of chemical reactions.”
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Evolution accounts for life’s unity

and diversity • The evolutionary view of
The history of life life
• Is a saga of a changing Earth billions of years old • Came into sharp focus in
1859 when Charles Darwin
published On the Origin of
Species by Natural
Selection

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• The Origin of Species

Natural Selection
articulated two main points • Darwin proposed Population
of organisms
• Descent with modification natural selection
• Natural selection • As the mechanism
for evolutionary Overproduction
Hereditary
adaptation of variations
and struggle for
populations to existence
their
environments Differences in
reproductive success

Evolution of adaptations
in the population

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• Natural selection is the

evolutionary process
that occurs 1 Populations with varied inherited traits The Tree of Life
• When a population’s
heritable variations are
exposed to environmental • Many related organisms
factors that favor the • Have very similar anatomical features, adapted for their
reproductive success of specific ways of life
2 Elimination of individuals with certain traits.
some individuals over
others
• Such examples of kinship
• Connect life’s “unity in diversity” to Darwin’s concept of
“descent with modification”
3 Reproduction of survivors.

4 Increasing frequency of traits that enhance

survival and reproductive success. 49 50

• Darwin proposed that natural selection

• Could enable an ancestral species to “split” into two or
more descendant species, resulting in a “tree of life” • Each species is on twig of a branching tree of life
Large
ground finch Small Large
• Extending back in time through ancestral species
Large cactus
ground finch
ground
finch
tree finch
more and more remote
Geospiza Camarhynchus Green Gray
magnirostris Geospiza psitacula warbler warbler
Sharp-beaked fuliginosa Woodpecker Medium
Geospiza Medium finch finch
• All of life
ground finch finch tree finch
conirostris ground
finch Certhidea Certhidea
Geospiza Camarhynchus
• Is connected through its long evolutionary history
Cactus Cactospiza
difficilis pauper olivacea fusca
ground finch pallida
Geospiza Mangrove Small tree finch
fortis finch
Geospiza Camarhynchus
scandens Cactospiza
parvulus
heliobates
Seed eater Cactus flower Seed eater Vegetarian
eater finch

Platyspiza
crassirostris

Insect eaters Bud eater

Ground finches Tree finches Warbler finches

Common ancestor from

South American mainland 51

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• Biologists explore life across its great diversity of

species
• Diversity is a hallmark of life

TAXONOMIC
HIERARCHY
CHAPTER 2

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Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain

Ursus
americanus
(American
black bear)
Ursus

Ursidae

Carnivora

Mammalia CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

Chordata
Concept 1.7

Animalia

Eukarya 55 56

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Early System of Classification 57 Early System of Classification

• Organism’s were grouped into land dwellers,
Organisms were first water dwellers, and air dwellers.
classified more than
2,000 years ago by
• Plants were placed into three categories based
the Greek on the differences in their stems.
philosopher • As new organism’s were discovered, his system
Aristotle. became inadequate.
• Categories were not specific enough.
• Common names did not describe a species accurately.
• Names were long and hard to remember.

Summary of proposed classification system Summary of proposed classification system

since the time of Linnaeus since the time of Linnaeus
Linnaeus Haeckel Chatton Copeland Whittaker
Woese Woese (1993) Cavalier- Smith Cavalier- Smith
(1735) (1866) (1925) (1938) (1969)
(1977) (1993) (1993)
Two Kingdom Three Two Empire Four Kingdom Five Kingdom
Six Kingdom Three Domain Eight Kingdom Six Kingdom
Kingdom
Eubacteria Bacteria Eubacteria Bacteria
Prokarya Monera Monera
Archaebacteria Archaea Archaebacteria
Protista Eukarya Archezoa Protozoa

Protista Eukarya Protista Protista Protozoa

Chromista Chromista
Plantae Plantae Plantae
Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Fungi Fungi
Fungi Animalia Animalia Animalia

Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

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LINNAEAN HIERARCHICAL Here is an example of a Linnaean

classification system:
SCHEME
• Linnaeus in his work Systema Naturae (The System of Domain Eukarya Domain Eukarya
Nature) had developed and presented a way of naming Kingdom Animalia Phylum Kingdom Plantae
and classifying organisms that is still used until this day:
Chordata Phylum Magnoliophyta Class
Class Mammalia Order Magnoliopsida
1. Assigning of organisms to a particular taxon in every Primate Order Magnoliales
biological hierarchy Family Hominidae Annonaceae
2. Establishing a unified way of naming organisms Genus Homo Genus Annona
through binomial nomenclature Species sapiens Species squamosa

Common Name: Human Common Name: Atis

Prokaryotes

Major Life Groups

The groupings presented are based on the Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom
widely used three-domain and six Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista
Kingdom schemes proposed by Woese et
al (1977 and 1990). Included also are the Eukaryotes
well accepted and most known taxa under
the Kingdom Plantae and Animalia.

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom

63 Fungi Plantae Animalia
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Domain Archaea (primitive) Domain Archaea (primitive)

▪ Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Single celled prokaryotes ─ Unicellular organisms that live in
that lacks nucleus extremely harsh conditions
• Membranes are composed ─ Can be divided into three major
of glycerol-ether lipids and groupings:
cell wall lacks
─ Methanogens (methane-maker)
peptidoglycan
─ Halophiles (Salt lovers)
• Differ from the bacteria in
their genetic transcription ─Extreme thermophiles (Heat
and translation, the lovers)
central processes of
molecular biology

Domain Bacteria
• Lack of membrane-bound nucleus
• Contain smaller pieces of circular DNA
called plasmids
• In unfavorable living conditions, some
can form dehydrated, inactive cells called
endospores but can be reactivated when
conditions improve.
• Most reproduce asexually through
binary fission, a process in which
chromosome is continually replicated
after which the cells divide
• Some sexually by conjugation, a process
Thermus thermophilus, which can survive in the Hot Springs at Yellowstone. of exchanging genetic material through
cell to cell contact.
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Domain Bacteria
▪ Kingdom Eubacteria
— Far more common that Archaebacteria
— No mitotic division, mostly asexual reproduction
— Cell wall made of peptidoglycan and cell membrane lacks Treponema pallidum Bacillus subtilis
cholesterol and steroids
— Can be divided into three groups according to shape:
— Spirilla (spiral-shape)
— Bacilla (rod-shape)
— Cocci (spherical shape)

Staphylococcus aureus
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Domain Eukarya

• Have membrane-bound
organelles and a nucleus
surrounded by nuclear
envelope with mostly
multicellular but with
several unicellular
representatives
• Exhibit mitotic division,
sexual reproduction of
higher representatives
involves meiotic division.

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Kingdom Protista
• Mostly unicellular, but some like algae are
multicellular without specialized tissue
organization

DOMAIN EUKARYA • Lacks plastids and photosynthetic pigments

• Primarily live in aquatic environment, moist
soils, or anywhere with liquid water.

• Movement is often with the use of flagella,

cilia, pseudopodia
• May reproduce asexually or sexually
And Its Four Kingdoms
Examples: Amoeba, Euglena

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Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae

• More closely related to animals than plants
• Multicellular and have chlorophyll
• Heterotrophic organisms, cannot manufacture
their own food • Cell wall composed of cellulose
• Most grow as tubular filaments called hyphae • Lack motility and can manufacture their own
food (autotroph)
• Reproduce by asexual, sexual or both
• Produce spores that can undergo mitosis to
form multicellular, haploid individuals.
• Examples: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast),
Penicillium

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A. Non-Vascular Plants
Division Bryophyta Division Hepatophyta Division
(Moss Plant) (Liver-like plant) Anthocerophyta
(Flower-horn plant) MOSSES
- A tightly packed - The bodies are - Sporophytes are
plant that forms divided into lobes. horn-shaped and
like sponge. matlike
gametophyte
Example: Mosses Example Liverworts Example: Hornworts

A. Non-Vascular Plants
Division Bryophyta Division Hepatophyta Division
(Moss Plant) (Liver-like plant) Anthocerophyta LIVERWORTS
(Flower-horn plant)

- A tightly packed - The bodies are - Sporophytes are

plant that forms like divided into lobes. horn-shaped and
sponge. matlike
gametophyte
Example: Mosses Example Liverworts Example: Hornworts

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A. Non-Vascular Plants HORNWORTS

Division Bryophyta Division Hepatophyta Division
(Moss Plant) (Liver-like plant) Anthocerophyta
(Flower-horn plant)

- A tightly packed - The bodies are - Sporophytes are

plant that forms like divided into lobes. horn-shaped and
sponge. matlike
gametophyte
Example: Mosses Example Liverworts Example: Hornworts

B.Vascular Plants Division Lycopodiophyta

1. Seedless and Spore-bearing plants
Division Lycopodiophyta Division Pterydophyta Division
(Wolf-footed plant) (Feather/wing plant) Sphenophyta
(Horsetails)
- Low growing plants with - Leaves have branched - Jointed stems
rhizomes and true system of leaf veins with reduced
leaves and whorled leaf
arrangement

Example: Clubmoss and Example: Ferns Example: Equisetum

spikemoss

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B.Vascular Plants Division Pterydophyta

1. Seedless and Spore-bearing plants
Division Lycopodiophyta Division Pterydophyta Division
(Wolf-footed plant) (Feather/wing plant) Sphenophyta
(Horsetails)
- Low growing plants with - Leaves have - Jointed stems
rhizomes and true leaves branched system of with reduced
leaf veins and whorled leaf
arrangement

Example: Clubmoss and Example: Ferns Example: Equisetum

spikemoss

B.Vascular Plants
Division Sphenophyta /
1. Seedless and Spore-bearing plants
Equisetophyta
Division Lycopodiophyta Division Pterydophyta Division
(Wolf-footed plant) (Feather/wing plant) Sphenophyta
(Horsetails)
- Low growing plants with - Leaves have branched - Jointed stems
rhizomes and true leaves system of leaf veins with reduced
and whorled
leaf
arrangement

Example: Clubmoss and Example: Ferns Example:

spikemoss Equisetum

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B. Vascular Plants
2.Naked-seed, non-flowering plants Division Gnetophyta
(Gymnosperm)
Division Division Division Division
Gnetophyta Gingkophyta Coniferophyta Cycadophyta
(Genuine plant) (Silver plant/ (Cone-bearing (Palm like plant)
silver apricot) plant )
- Leaves are Leaves are fan- - Leaves are - Leaves are
broad like shaped small, long and compound
angiosperm narrow resembles like
(needle-like) palms and
ferns
Example: Example: Example: Example:
Gnetum Gingko biloba, Conifers, Pines Cycads
maidenhair tree

B. Vascular Plants
2.Naked-seed, non-flowering plants
(Gymnosperm) Division Gingkophyta
Division Division Division Division
Gnetophyta Gingkophyta Coniferophyta (Cone- Cycadophyta
(Genuine plant) (Silver plant/ silver bearing plant ) (Palm like plant)
apricot)
- Leaves are Leaves are fan- - Leaves are small, - Leaves are
broad like shaped long and narrow compound
angiosperm (needle-like) resembles
like palms
and ferns
Example: Example: Example: Example:
Gnetum Gingko biloba, Conifers, Pines Cycads
maidenhair tree

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B. Vascular Plants
2.Naked-seed, non-flowering plants Division Coniferophyta
(Gymnosperm)
Division Division Division Division
Gnetophyta Gingkophyta Coniferophyta Cycadophyta
(Genuine plant) (Silver plant/ (Cone-bearing (Palm like plant)
silver apricot) plant )
- Leaves are Leaves are fan- - Leaves are - Leaves are
broad like shaped small, long compound
angiosperm and narrow resembles like
(needle-like) palms and
ferns
Example: Example: Example: Example:
Gnetum Gingko biloba, Conifers, Pines Cycads
maidenhair tree

B. Vascular Plants
2.Naked-seed, non-flowering plants
(Gymnosperm)
Division Division Division Division
Gnetophyta Gingkophyta Coniferophyta Cycadophyta
The largest Sequoiadendron (Genuine plant) (Silver plant/ (Cone-bearing (Palm like plant)
giganteum is the General Sherman silver apricot) plant )
located in the Giant Forest Grove
- Leaves are Leaves are fan- - Leaves are - Leaves are
(US Sierra, Nevada).
broad like shaped small, long and compound
angiosperm narrow resembles like
(needle-like) palms and
ferns
Example: Example: Example: Example:
Gnetum Gingko biloba, Conifers, Pines Cycads
maidenhair tree
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B. Vascular Plants
Division Cycadophyta 3. Flowering plants (Angiosperm)
Division Anthophyta (Angiospermae)

ANGIOSPERMS

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Domain Eukarya Animals can be divided into two big groups

based on the presence of backbone or the
▪ Kingdom Animalia
- Multicellular heterotrophs
vertebral column:
- Made up of many different cell types organized
into tissue and in turn performs specialized
Invertebrata (no backbone)
functions and may work together to form organs
and organ system Vertebrata (with backbone)
- Most have bilateral symmetry, primitive forms
may have asymmetrical or radial body plan
- Most have the ability for rapid movement,
primitive forms may be entirely non-motile or at
some point in its life cycle.

Invertebrata (no backbone) Invertebrata (no backbone)

A. Phylum Porifera (pore-bearer) B. Phylum Cnidaria (stinging nettle)
• Non-motile multicellular • Multicellular, with radial symmetry
organisms • Have two forms, medusa and
• Body may be asymmetrical or poplyp, but others exhibit one
radial with numerous pores form throughout their entire life
(ostia) and central cavity • Usually contains an internal cavity
(spongocoel) and a mouth
• Exoskeleton made up of • Mostly carnivorous, if not, filter
sponging fiber or calcareous/ feeders
siliceous spicules or both
• Mostly live in marine habitat,
few in freshwater.
• Example: Sponge

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Example: Coral, Common jellyfish, sea anemone, hydra

Invertebrata (no backbone)

C. Phylum Ctenophora (comb-
bearing)
• Multicellular, with radial
or biradial symmetry
• Body contains an internal
cavity, with mouth and
anal pores
• Moves by rows of hair-
like cilia (combs)
• Have well developed
subepidermal nerve net
• All are carnivorous and
inhabits marine
environment
• Example: Pleurobrachia,
Cestum, Beroe

Example: Planaria, Liver flukes, Blood Flukes

Invertebrata (no backbone)

D. Phylum Platyhelminthes
(flatworms)
• Bilateral symmetrical and
dorsoventrally flattened
• Body having three layer of tissue
• Nervous system is longitudinal
rather than net
• Mostly sexual as
hermaphrodites and are
parasites

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Invertebrata (no backbone)

E. Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
• Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform
• Body is covered with cuticle with inner cavity
(pseudoceol)
• Have complete gut and subterminus anus
• Nervous system with pharyngeal nerve ring
• No circulatory system and reproduce sexually
(gonochoristic)

Example Hookworm, Whipworm (Trichuris), Ascaris, Pinworm (Enterobius) 110

Invertebrata (no backbone)

F. Phylum Annelida (Segmented
worms)
• Bilaterally symmetrical and
vermiform
• Body cavity is a true coelom
which is divided by septa
• Digestive tract is complete,
with mouth and anus
• Nervous system consists of
anterior nerve ring, ganglia,
and ventral nerve cord
• May be gonochoristic or
hermaphroditic

111 112

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Invertebrata (no backbone)

G. Phylum Mollusca (Soft bodied)
• Body is bilaterally
symmetrical and without
cavity
• With complete digestive
tract and open circulatory
system
• Many have dorsal or lateral
shells serving as a house
• Nervous system with
circum-esophageal ring,
ganglia and paired nerve
cord and are gonochoristic

Example: Earthworm (Lumbricus), Polychaete (Nereis), Leech (Hirudo) 113

Example Octopus, Squid, Clam, Slug and Chiton

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Example: Sea star, Sea urchin, Brittle star, Sea cucumber

Invertebrata (no backbone)

H. Phylum Echinodermata (spiny/ half skin)
• Body is five-rayed symmetrical, mostly radial
• Body cavity is a true coelom, with complete digestive tract
• Body shape is highly variable but with no head
• Nervous system with circum-esophageal ring
• Has water vascular system, operating the “tube feet”
• Gonochoristic and all lives in marine habitats

Example: Crab, Insects, Scorpions, Centipedes, Shrimps

Invertebrata (no backbone)

I. Phylum Arthropoda (joint – footed
foot)
• Body is bilaterally symmetrical
with true coelom
• Most have a straight complete
digestive tract
• Body is divided into 2 or 3 sections
(head, thorax, abdomen)
• Nervous system with brain and
ganglia
• Has open circulatory system with
simple heart, no veins
• Gonochoristic but can be
parthenogenetic

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Vertebrata (with backbone) Vertebrata (with backbone)

Phylum Chordata
Phylum Chordata
• Bilaterally symmetrical with true coelom
• Has single hollow nerve cord beneath dorsal surface • Superclass Agnatha (Jaw-less)
differentiating into spinal cord and brain Example: hagfishes, lampreys
• Notochord is present at one or entire stage of the life cycle
• Post anal tail is present at least in embryo, becomes the tail
bone in humans
• Pharyngeal slits present at least in the embryo, modified to
form gills and fishes
• With endostyle aiding for food gathering, metamorphosed
into the thyroid gland in adults

Vertebrata (with backbone) Vertebrata (with backbone)

Phylum Chordata Phylum Chordata
• Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish) • Superclass Osteichthyes (Bony fish)
Example: sharks, skates, rays, chimaeras Example: Bangus, Eel, Piranha, Goldfish

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Vertebrata (with backbone) Vertebrata (with backbone)

Phylum Chordata Phylum Chordata
• Superclass Tetrapoda • Superclass Tetrapoda
Class Amphibia (Amphibians) Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
Example: Toads, Frogs, Newts and Salamanders Example: Snakes, Turtles, Crocodiles, Komodo dragon

Vertebrata (with backbone) Vertebrata (with backbone)

Phylum Chordata Phylum Chordata
• Superclass Tetrapoda • Superclass Tetrapoda
Class Aves (Birds) Class Mammalia (Mammals)
Example: Ostrich, Chicken Example: Beaver, Koala, Lion

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Fin.

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