Bio Reviewer — STEM1

Tanglao, Jan Francis

Cell
- The smallest unit of life.
- It makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body.
Proponents:

1. Robert Hooke (1665)

- Discovers chamber-like structures on cork — which reminded him of
rooms in the monastery that he calls “cells”.
- Discovered it as well on plants and fungi.
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676)
- The inventor of the microscope.
- Discovers red blood cells, sperms, etc.
3. Robert Brown (1833)
- Discovers that cells have nucleus

In the mid-18th century, few advancements were made due to the spontaneous
generation — a hypothesis that states organisms or living things came from nonliving
matters.

The Cell Theory

Proponents:

1. Matthias Schleiden
- Botanist, co-founder of the cell theory
- He stated that “All plants are made of cells.”
2. Theodor Schwann
- Zoologist, co-founder of the cell theory
- He stated that “All animals are made of cells.”
3. Rudolf Virchow
- Pathologist, co-founder of the cell theory
- He stated that “All cells came from pre-existing cells.”
Postulates:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or many cells.

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2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.

3. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotes
- Unicellular
- “Before” – “Nucleus”
- Semi-rigid cell wall
- No membrane-bound organelles.
- Nucleoid Region — A region where its genetic material can be found.
- Examples: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria

Eukaryotes
- Multicellular
- “True” – “Nucleus”
- Membrane-bound organelles.
- Examples: Protista, Fungi, Animalia, Plantae

Organelles
1. Cell membrane
- Outer layer of the cells among animals.
- It separates cells from the external environment.
- It regulates what goes in and out of the cell.
- Phospholipid bilayer — composed of two layers, hydrophilic and
hydrophobic ends, that regulate and control what goes in and out the cell.
2. Cell Wall
- Outermost layer found in plants, fungi, and bacteria cells.
- It provides tensile strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic
stress.
3. Cytoplasm
- Jelly-like substance that contains the organelles.

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- Responsible for dynamic suspension of organelles and fluid nature of the

cell’s internal environment.
● Cytosol/Hyaloplasm
- Jelly-like substance.
- A fluid region in the cell where other cell components are found.
4. Nucleus
- It controls or regulates all chemical reactions within the cell.
- Membrane-bound
● Nuclear Membrane
- A porous membrane that separates the nucleus from the
hyaloplasm.
● Nucleolus
- Aggregate of granules made of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Sites for lipid and protein synthesis.
6. Rough ER
- Series of membranous channels associated with active protein synthesis
that forms a continuous network extending from the cell membrane to the
nucleus.
- Contains ribosomes and is the site for protein synthesis.
- It also functions as the cell’s membrane-making machine.
7. Smooth ER
- Membranous channels that do not contain ribosomes and are involved in
lipid transport and synthesis.
- Contains cell types used in metabolic processes, especially lipid
synthesis, as well as storage of calcium ions.
8. Golgi Bodies/Golgi Apparatus
- Cluster of flattened membranous sacs continuous with the channels of the
SER.
- For storage, modification and packing of materials produced for secretory
export.

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9. Lysosomes
- Single wall membranous sacs responsible for the digestion of nutrients,
bacteria and damaged cells.
- Contains digestive enzymes that help break down food or damaged
organelles.
10. Vacuole
- Membranous sacs that store and release various substances within the
cytoplasm responsible for cell enlargement and water balance.
- Storage of food and other chemicals.
11. Mitochondria
- Double walled membranous sacs with folded inner partitions called
cristae, contain its own DNA and ribosomes, thus it can independently
replicate itself and appear to control the synthesis of its membranes.
- Release energy from food molecules and transform it into usable ATP
which happens during cellular respiration “powerhouse of the cell”
12. Chloroplast
- Double membrane organelles in plants with inner folds called Thylakoids.
- It has similar characteristics with mitochondria responsible for the
conversion of light energy into chemical energy of sugars in plants.
- Present in plants and used in photosynthesis.
13. Ribosomes
- Free particles suspended within the cytoplasm or attached to the
membranous wall of the ER.
- Synthesize protein molecules that may be used to build structures or to
function as enzymes.
14. Cytoskeleton
● Centrosome
- In animal cells, it helps organize spindle fibers and distribute
chromosomes during mitosis.
● Cilia and Flagella
- Minute cytoplasmic projections for movement.

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● Fibrils and Microtubules

- Hollow tubes that support and transport material within the cytoplasm

Tissues
- Group of cells
- Organized to perform one or more specific functions.

Epithelial Tissues
- Covers the body, lines the cavities of the body and composes the glands.
- Functions including protection, sensation, diffusion, secretion, absorption and
excretion.

Simple Epithelia
- Epithelial tissue that is only one cell thick.
1. Simple Squamous
- A single layer of squamous cells that are thin, flat cells that look like scales.
- They form the lining of cavities such as the mouth, blood vessels and lungs.
- Used for passive transport.
2. Simple Cuboidal
- One layer of cuboidal cells which are cells that are roughly square or cube-like in
shape.
- Centrally-located nucleus.
- Found in glands, duct and portions of the kidney tubules.
- For excretion and secretion.
3. Simple Columnar
- A single layer of tall, skinny cells (column-shaped).
- Basally-located nucleus.
- For absorption and secretion.

Stratified Epithelia
- The tissue is two or more cells thick.

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1. Stratified Squamous
- Single layers of cells lie upon each other to form a stratified squamous
epithelium.
- Provides protection
2. Stratified Cuboidal
- Uncommon when compared to other epithelial tissues.
- Used for protection, secretion, and glands.
3. Pseudostratified Columnar
- Appears to be composed of layers of cells, but is in fact composed of just a single
layer of cells.
- Line the nasal cavity, bronchi and trachea.

Transitional Epithelia/Urothelium
- Multiple layers of cells, but surface cells change from rounded to flat to allow
expansion.
- Found in the urinary bladder, renal pelvis and ureters (Urinary Tract).

Supporting/Connective Tissue
- Provide general structure, mechanical strength, space filling and physical and
metabolic support for more specialized tissues.
- Made up of a matrix consisting of living cells and a non-living substance, called
the ground substance.
- Fibroblast — Principal cell
1. Blood
- A connective tissue because it has a matrix.
- Transporting oxygen, controlling body temperature, and nutrients to the lungs
and tissues.
2. Erythrocytes
- The principal job of an erythrocyte is to carry and deliver oxygen to the tissues.
- No nucleus
- Biconcave

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- Contains the hemoglobin — transports oxygen and carbon.

- 120 day cell cycle
3. Leukocytes
- All of them are immune system cells involved in defending the body.
a. Monocytes
b. Eosinophils
c. Basophils
d. Lymphocytes
e. Neutrophils
4. Thrombocytes
- Small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or prevent
bleeding.
- Haemostasis — a process to prevent and stop bleeding, meaning to keep blood
within a damaged blood vessel

Loose Connective Tissue

- Has some fibroblasts, collagen fibers and elastin fibers.
- Purpose is to keep and hold organs and blood vessels in place.
- Tough, yet flexible, and comprises membranes.

Fibrous Connective Tissue/Dense Connective Tissue

- Contain large amounts of collagen fibers and few cells or matrix material.
- Supports, protects, and holds bones, muscles, and other tissues and organs in
place
- Found in tendons and ligaments.
1. Cartilage
- large amount of the matrix and variable amounts of fibers.
- Chondrocytes — make the matrix and fibers of the tissue and tissues in lacunae.
a. Hyaline Cartilage
b. Elastic Cartilage
c. Fibrocartilage
2. Bone

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- a connective tissue that has a large amount of two different types of matrix
material.
- osseous tissue
3. Adipose Tissue
- A connective tissue that extends throughout your body.
- Made up of cells called adipocytes
- Function as cushioning against damage to body organs.

Muscle Tissue
- Made up of cells that have the unique ability to contract or become shorter.
1. Skeletal
- This tissue is composed of long, multinucleate cells with visible striations.
- Allows movement by being attached to bones in the body.
- Striations
- Voluntary
2. Smooth
- Composed of short, cylindrical cells that taper at the ends, smooth muscles are
commonly involved in involuntary motions.
- Involuntary
3. Cardiac
- Contains short, branched, striated cells, with one nucleus at the center of each
cell.
- Striations, except in cardiac muscle
- Involuntary

Nervous Tissue
- Responds to changes in the environment and conducts impulses to various
organs in the body to respond to these changes.
- Found in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves that branch throughout the
body.
Neurons

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- These are the cells that carry electrical impulses.

1. Axon
- The main conducting unit of the neuron and capable of conveying electrical
signals over long and short distances.
- Transmits impulses from the cell body to other cells.
2. Dendrites
- These structures branch out from the cell body in a tree-like fashion.
- Function in receiving signals from other nerve cells.

Cell Modifications
- Specialized or modifications re-acquired by the cell after cell division that helps
the cell in different beneficial ways.
1. Flagella
- hairlike structure that acts primarily as an organelle of locomotion in the cells of
many living organisms.
2. Microvilli
- Finger-like projections of the plasma membrane found in many epithelia,
particularly those specialized for absorption, where their presence may increase.
- The surface area is as much as 30-fold.
3. Cilia
- project from the apical surfaces of certain epithelial cells, notably in the
respiratory and female reproductive tracts.
a. Motile
- These cilia beat with a wave-like synchronous rhythm, propelling surface films of
mucus or fluid in a consistent direction over the epithelial surface.
b. Non-motile
- These cilia function as sensors for mechanical and chemical signals.
- Primary cilium or sensory cilium
4. Goblet Cells
- modified columnar epithelial cells that synthesize and secrete mucus.

Phospholipid Bilayer

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- separates the living cell and the surroundings.

- Selective/semi-permeability — allows specific substances to get in.
- Hydrophilic head (out), Hydrophobic tail (in)

Integral Protein
- Integrated in the cell membrane — proteins that are embedded in the lipid
bilayer.
- Controls what goes in and out with its openings:
1. Carrier
- Not open simultaneously to both the extracellular and intracellular environments.
- Conformational change
2. Channel
- Open to both sides
- Free flowing
3. Pump
- Moves ions across the plasma membrane.
- Uses energy (ATP) to move in a specific direction.
Directions:

1. Symport
- Two substances to one direction simultaneously.
2. Uniport
- One substance at a time moves.
3. Antiport
- Two substances move in opposite directions.

Cell Transport and Homeostasis

- Keep conditions within normal ranges inside the cells and the organism as a
whole

Passive Transport
1. Simple Diffusion

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- Moves the particles through the concentration gradient (high to low).

- Moves until equilibrium (equal on both sides) has met.
- Solutes move
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

a. Size (Smaller – Faster)

b. Polarity (Attracted to non-polar areas)
c. Charge (Opposites attract)
d. Concentration Gradient (Gap-y and different concentrations, faster)
e. Temperature (Hotter, faster)
f. Surface Area (Larger, faster)
2. Osmosis
- Transport of water
- Water moves to the higher concentration of solute.
a. Hypotonic
- Water goes in, the cell swells and bursts.
b. Isotonic
- Maintains itself, no changes, water goes in and out.
c. Hypertonic
- Water goes out, the cell shrinks (crenate).
3. Facilitated Diffusion
- Uses proteins for diffusion.
- For different polars to pass through
a. Channel Protein
- Bind to specific molecules, undergo a shape change, and transport the
molecule across the membrane.
b. Carrier Protein
- Create an open pathway or channel through which ions or molecules can
pass freely.

Active Transport
Electrochemical Gradient

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- Against the concentration gradient

- Low to High
Pump:

1. Primary Transport
- Directly uses ATP to move molecules across a membrane against their
gradient.
- Potassium-Sodium Pump — Na goes out, K goes in

2. Secondary Transport
- Uses an electrochemical gradient to move molecules against their
gradient.

Bulk:

1. Endocytosis
- Goes into the cell.
a. Phagocytosis
- Cell-eating — engulfs cells.

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b. Pinocytosis
- Cell-drinking — takes the fluid and dissolves cells.
c. Receptor-mediated
- Receives signals from outside
- Requires receptor signals
- The cell uses specific receptors on its surface to bind to and take in
specific molecules
2. Endocytosis
- Goes out of the cell.

Centrosome
- A small organelle that serves as a microtubule-organizing center.

Spindle Fibers
- Microtubules responsible for separating sister chromatids during cell division.

Centrioles
- Cylindrical organelles that play a role in organizing cell division, characterized by
their tube-like structure.

Chromatin
- The form of genetic material (DNA) that is not yet condensed; it appears loose
and stringy.

Chromatid
- One of the two identical halves of a duplicated chromosome that exists during
cell division.

Chromosome

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- A fully coiled and distinct structure that carries genetic information, often referred
to as sister chromatids. Half of a chromatid may also be called a chromosome,
indicating its tightly coiled and packed form.

The Cell Cycle

1. Interphase : Gap 1 (G1)
- The ‘’decision making step’’
- There is a period of growth and development.
- Every organelle of the cell will get replicated except for the genetic
information or DNA.
- The centrosome synthesizes mRNA and Proteins during this phase

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Checkpoints:

a. G1 Damage Checkpoint
- It checks if the DNA pairings of the cell are correct, checks the DNA
Integrity.
- The cell checks its DNA to make sure everything is correct and
undamaged.
b. Restriction And Cell Growth Checkpoint
- They check or see if the cell is capable of undergoing cell division.
- If something’s wrong, it won’t move on to the next phase.
2. Interphase : Gap 0 (G0)
- The period of the cell cycle during which the cell is neither dividing nor
preparing to divide — Resting period.
- The G0 phase is often thought of as an extension of interphase.
- Enters G0 either because the cell no longer needs to divide, lacks the
necessary nutrients and energy to divide, or because the cell is blocked in
the checkpoints of interphase.
- Quiescent — may go back to cell division with proper stimulus.
- Senescent — caused by damaged DNA.
3. Interphase : S Phase
- Nucleus will grow larger in this phase.
- Central dogma/DNA Synthesis/Replication
Checkpoint:
a. S-DNA Damage Checkpoint
- Monitors replication process.
4. Interphase : Gap 2 (G2)
- A phase of rapid cell growth
- Spindle fibers form from the centrosome of G1
- Protein synthesis continues
- It will recheck the growth and replication from G1 And S phases.
5. Mitosis

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- the process through which a single parent cell divides to produce two
identical daughter cells, each receiving a complete set of chromosomes.
- This process enables growth and the replacement of cells in the body.
- It occurs only in eukaryotic cells, specifically somatic cells
(non-reproductive cells).

Mitosis
1. Prophase
- Chromatins condense to form the Sister Chromatids/Chromosomes
- Cell nucleus disappears making space for the chromosomes to move
around.
- Spindle fibers start to form and move to opposite poles.
- Centrioles are present
a. Prometaphase
- The nuclear envelope starts to break down.
- Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules from the G2 phase
at the centromere via a protein complex known as the kinetochore.
2. Metaphase
- Chromosomes line up along the equatorial plane of the cell.
Checkpoint:

a. Spindle Assembly Checkpoint

- This checkpoint prevents the separation of duplicated
chromosomes until each one is correctly attached to the spindle,
helping to avoid errors that could lead to issues like cancer.

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3. Anaphase
- The sister chromatids are separated at the centromere.
- Each chromatid becomes an individual chromosome and is rapidly drawn
toward the centrosome to which its microtubule is attached.
- The sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase
- the processes that prepared the duplicated chromosomes for mitosis in
the earlier phases are reversed.
- The chromosomes begin to uncoil and revert to their loose chromatin
form.
- The spindle fibers disappear, and DNA condenses back into chromatin.
- The nuclear envelope reforms, and the nucleus reappears.
5. Cytokinesis
- Physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter
cells.
- Animal Cell — Contractile Filament Rings/Cleavage Furrow forms.
- Plant Cell — Cell Plate forms.

Meiosis

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- A specialized form of cell division that halves the chromosome number, resulting
in four haploid cells, each containing a distinct set of genetic material.
- These cells, known as gametes (sperm in males and eggs in females), are vital
for sexual reproduction, ensuring that the combination of sperm and egg during
fertilization yields offspring with the correct chromosome count.
- Four haploid cells are formed.
- These cells are genetically different from one another and from the original
parent cell.
- This genetic diversity is essential for sexual reproduction, ensuring that offspring
inherit a unique combination of genes from both parents.
- Occurs in two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II — similar to mitosis.

Meiosis I
1. Prophase I
- During this phase, chromosomes condense and become visible under a
microscope.
- Homologous chromosomes, which are pairs carrying the same genes but
potentially different versions, undergo synapsis, where they pair up.
- While paired, they exchange genetic material through crossing over.
- This process leads to new gene combinations and enhances genetic
diversity.
2. Metaphase I
- In this phase, the tetrads line up along the cell's equatorial plane, known
as the metaphase plate.
- The orientation of these pairs is random, facilitating independent
assortment, which further boosts genetic variation.
3. Anaphase I
- During this phase, spindle fibers pull homologous chromosomes apart,
moving them toward opposite poles of the cell.

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- The entire tetrad (composed of two sister chromatids) is pulled to one

side.
4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
- The separated chromosomes arrive at the poles, and the cell divides into
two haploid cells.
- Each new cell contains half the original number of chromosomes, although
each chromosome still has two sister chromatids.
5. Interkinesis
- There is no DNA replication during interkinesis.
- The cells simply prepare for the upcoming division, which will separate
sister chromatids.

Meiosis II
1. Prophase II
- The chromosomes, still in the form of sister chromatids, condense once
more, and a new spindle apparatus develops in each cell.
- If a nuclear envelope is reformed during interkinesis, it breaks down again.
2. Metaphase II

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- The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, similar to mitosis, but this
time, each cell contains only one set of chromosomes since they are
haploid.
3. Anaphase II
- Spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart, moving them toward
opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis
- The chromosomes reach the poles, and a nuclear envelope reforms
around each set of chromosomes.
- The cells then divide again, resulting in four genetically unique haploid
cells.

Nondisjunction
- The failure of homologous chromosomes, or sister chromatids, to separate
during meiosis.
- Results with the production of zygotes with abnormal chromosome numbers.

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Two Fashions:

a. Monosomy
- The absence of one member of a pair of chromosomes
b. Trisomy
- The affected person has three copies of one of the chromosomes instead
of two.
- Excess of one chromosome in a pair — having three chromosomes.

Gametogenesis
1. Spermatogenesis
- In males, meiosis produces sperm. This process begins with a diploid cell,
which undergoes meiosis to generate four haploid sperm cells.
2. Oogenesis
- In females, meiosis leads to the formation of one mature egg and three
polar bodies (small cells that typically do not take part in reproduction).
- This process differs because the cytoplasm is unevenly divided during
cytokinesis, ensuring that the egg has sufficient resources.

Fertilization
- When a sperm and egg fuse during fertilization, the two haploid cells combine to
create a diploid zygote.
- This zygote contains a complete set of chromosomes and will develop into a new
organism.

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