CLIMATE IS WHAT YOU EXPECT,

Meteorology WEATHER IS WHAT YOU GET

Lecture 2

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 Contents
METEOROLOGY
ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
VAPOUR PRESSURE
SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE
DEW POINT TEMPRATURE
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
SATURATION DEFICIT
LAPSE RATE
MEASUREMENTS OF DIFFERENT METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
AIR MASS MOVEMENTS

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METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is the science of atmosphere, which is the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.
OR
Meteorology is the study and forecasting of weather changes resulting from large scale
atmospheric circulation

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 ATMOSPHERE
Term derived from Greek word Atmos (Vapor of breath) & Sphira (Sphere or ball).
Meteorological elements such as temperature, pressure and humidity vary with time and
space both in horizontal and vertical directions
Change in vertical direction is more prominent than horizontal direction
Greater emphasis is put on the study of vertical structure of atmosphere.

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 VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer extending
about (11 Km) 7 miles above sea level
All meteorological phenomena like cloud formation,
occurrence of cyclones and thunderstorms are in
troposphere
All atmospheric water occurs in this layer
This is the reason that it is most important to be
understood in hydrology

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Atmospheric Pressure: the pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere, which at sea level has a mean value of 101,325 pascal
(roughly 14.7 pounds per square inch or psi)
Vapor Pressure: partial pressure caused by the water vapors is called
Vapor pressure.
Saturation Vapor Pressure: the maximum vapor pressure the air can
with-hold at a certain temperature. This is a function of (it depends
upon) temperature.
Dew Point Temperature: the temperature at which the air mass just
becomes saturated if cooled at constant vapour pressure with moisture
neither added nor removed.

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Relative Humidity: the amount of water vapor present in air expressed as
a percentage of the amount needed for saturation at the same
temperature
f=e/es

Saturation Deficit: The amount by which the water vapor in the air must
be increased to achieve saturation without changing the environmental
temperature and pressure. The saturation deficit may be expressed in
terms of a vapor pressure deficit, an absolute humidity deficit, or a
relative humidity deficit.
∆e= es-e

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Lapse Rate: rate of decrease of air
temperature with unit increase in the
altitude or elevation from the earth surface.
Average lapse rate is 3.6oF per 1000 ft
increase in elevation or 6.5oC per km
elevation.
Common or environmental lapse rate is much
variable, and it changes with convection,
radiation and condensation.

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METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND
OBSERVATIONS
Atmospheric pressure
Air Temperature
Relative humidity
Wind speed & Wind direction

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INSTRUMENTS
There are generally two types of instruments used e.g., recording and non recording
instruments. The most desirable requirements of meteorological instruments are:
Reliability: If a no of scientists or methods give same result, it is said to be reliable.
Accuracy: How close is the measurement or reading to the actual value
Simplicity of design
Convenience of operation and maintenance
Strength of construction

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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Non-recording instrument of atmospheric pressure is Barometer.
It should be exposed to uniform temperature and good light
It should be installed on solid and vertically mounting box
it should be placed in a room where temperature is almost constant and hung on inside wall
For comparison or drawing isobars barometric readings are reduce to standard gravity of
980.65cm/sec2 and standard temperature of 0oC.

See working of Barometer:

youtube.com/watch?v=7guv01A2f_Y
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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Recording instrument for measurement of
atmospheric pressure is barograph
They display the trend (up, steady, or
down) and the rate of change.
Daily readings should be checked with
barometer
For weekly charts time should be adjusted

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 AIR TEMPERATURE
Measured 4.5’ above the ground level
Non-recording instruments are maximum and minimum
thermometer
This is a u-tube containing mercury (at bottom bent) in it
and a clear liquid (alcohol) in the minimum side (left) which
expands on increase in temperature,
and pushes the column with maximum reading
Maximum and minimum is read by steel markers, in both
limbs of u tube.
The steel markers move up by mercury but can’t be pulled
down by mercury.
To reset steel marker, magnet is used to bring steel markers
to the mercury level in both limbs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNgGZNQ9SLc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSVkO6FUp7U 13
 Min Max Thermometer
Dry Bulb Wet Bulb Thermometer (out of order)

What is Current Temp?

What is Min and Max Temp?

Any comment on dry~wet bulb thermometer

 AIR TEMPERATURE
Thermograph is a recording type temperature
recording instrument
Movement of recording pen is controlled by the
change in curvature of bi-metallic strip one end of
which is rigidly fixed to the arm
Frequent checking is done by control thermometers

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 RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Psychrometer are used for determination of relative
humidity.
Two thermometers wet bulb and dry bulb are present in it
Dry thermometer is a normal thermometer
But the wet thermometer has a wick to be moistened by
wet cloth
Instrument is swung in the air for sometime so as to
evaporate water from the wick
And then reading from wet bulb is taken and their
difference is determined.
Reading of the dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb
depression is then seen in the table

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Hair hygrograph is a recording instrument and directly gives relative humidity in percentage

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WIND SPEED & DIRECTION
Measured with anemometers and
continuous record is obtained by
anemographs.

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 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF AIR MASSES
General wind system over a
smooth and uniform earth may be
outlined as shown.
These wind systems occur when
the influence of land , sea and
mountain ranges is neglected and
there is no seasonal variation.

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/coriolis-effect/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDEcAxfSYaI
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Atmospheric air circulation for
Nonrotating Sphere
If the earth were a nonrotating sphere,
atmospheric circulation would appear as in Fig.
3.1.1.
Air would rise near the equator (due to excessive
heating by Sun) and travel in the upper
atmosphere toward the poles, then cool, descend
into the lower atmosphere, and return toward the
equator. This is called Hadley circulation

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 Atmospheric air circulation for Rotating
Sphere
The rotation of the earth from west to east changes the circulation
pattern.
As a ring of air about the earth's axis moves toward the poles, its radius
decreases.
In order to maintain angular momentum, the velocity of air increases
with respect to the land surface, thus producing a westerly air flow. The
converse is true for a ring of air moving toward the equator—it forms an
easterly air flow.
The effect producing these changes in wind direction and velocity is
known as the Coriolis force.

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The actual pattern of atmospheric circulation
has three cells in each hemisphere, as shown
in Fig. 3.1.2.
In the tropical cell, heated air ascends at the
equator, proceeds toward the poles at upper
levels, loses heat and descends toward the
ground at latitude 30°.
Near the ground, it branches, one branch
moving toward the equator and the other
toward the pole.
In the polar cell, air rises at 60° and flows
toward the poles at upper levels, then cools
and flows back to 60° near the earth's surface.
The middle cell is driven frictionally by the
other two; its surface air flows toward the
pole, producing prevailing westerly air flow
in the mid-latitudes.
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GENERAL CIRCULATION OF AIR MASSES
At equator there is low pressure
area, winds are light and variable,
this belt is called doldrums
Winds from both hemisphere
enter into doldrums and cause
frequent showers and rains.
Away from equator are the belts of
high pressure easterlies and
westerlies.
Equitorial side easterlies are called
trade winds and weather is
generally dry

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 MONSOON SYSTEMS
 Continent and oceans exert considerable effects on the winds.
 Annual variations in the temperature over the oceans are much smaller than
on the land
 In summer lands warms very much fast as compared to the oceans and an
area of low pressure form on the land so the air moves from sea to the land and
is reverse in winters.
 Winds which undergo reversal of direction are called Monsoon winds.

NASA Video about Monsoon: UK Met Office Video about Monsoon:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CR7KL6KSlx4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpeVqICLTig

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MONSOON SYSTEMS
In WINTER over Indo-Pak sub-continent and central part of Asia a “high” is developed.
North easterly winds blow over most of the eastern shores of Asia and India. These are called
north-east Monsoon. These winds are cold and dry. Does not affect Pakistan.
In SUMMER a low is established over north west part of the continent due to heating in the arid
zones.
Over India and Pakistan wind blows form the south-west and is known as South-West
Monsoon. These winds are very damp and originate from Indian ocean.
In Pakistan summer monsoon sets in June but its effect becomes much pronounced in the
central areas by the third week of July. It remains effective by the end of September.

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MONSOON SYSTEMS

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MONSOON SYSTEMS

Prior to monsoon in Pakistan, weather becomes very dry and

maximum temperature comes across 110o F (43o C) by the beginning
of July a low is established over Hyderabad, Khairpur, Multan and
Sibbi divisions which is a reason of the onset of Monsoon to some
extent.
Monsoon air requires a lifting of 3 to 4 thousand feet to cause
thundershowers. And there exists no barrier to such height.

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WESTERN DISTURBANCES
Western disturbances are important air masses for most of the weather in
Pakistan and northern India. These disturbances approach from the West so are
called Western Disturbances.
These originate from Mediterranean Sea and Arabian Sea and move to easterly
or north-easterly direction.
Following conclusions have been developed by Pakistan Meteorology
Department for synoptic situation causing rains in winters in Pakistan
1. a western disturbance appearing over Turkey reaches in Pakistan in 7-8 days
2. a weak disturbance does not cause a rainfall
3. a well marked disturbance causes widespread rains.

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WESTERN DISTURBANCES

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 THANK YOU
QUESTIONS??

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 Make It Rain Experiment
Materials
• One-quart glass jar
• One saucer or small plate
• 1/2 cup of hot water
• Six ice cubes
Directions
1.Pour about two inches of very hot water into the glass jar.
2.Cover the jar with the saucer or plate
3.Wait two minutes.
4.Put the ice cubes on the saucer or plate.
5.Watch as the cold saucer or plate causes the moisture inside the jar to condense and form water
droplets.

Ref: https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/experiments-2/ 32
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